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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 



*&&&■ 



•Thf 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 



THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 



1 

JOHN J. DONOVAN, B.S. 

ARCHITECT 



AND OTHERS 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1921 

All rights reserved 






JOHN J. DONOVAN, Architect 
Printed from type. Published April, 1921 



Norfooou yrrss 

J. S. dishing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



APR 13 1921 
§>CU611589 



2DetitcateD 

TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF AMERICAN EDUCATION 

AND 

WITH DEEP AFFECTION 

TO MY WIFE AND TO MY MOTHER 

WHOSE STEADFAST LOYALTY 

AND SYMPATHY 

HAVE MADE MANY THINGS POSSIBLE 

FOR ME 



PREFACE 

When the necessity for a comprehensive book of this kind was realized by the writer, it was his first intention to 
offer a treatise on the planning of school buildings, written wholly from the architect's point of view. After a few 
months of effort it dawned upon him that in order to make the most thorough use of such information, it would 
be more valuable to both architect and schoolman if the organization of American schools were first discussed and 
emphasized as a basis for the discussion of the architectural features. Thus the application of modern school archi- 
tecture to modern school development could be concisely and logically shown. This plan has been followed. In- 
formation on the organization of schools was very much needed by the writer when he first turned his attention 
to the architecture of school buildings, and, no doubt, such a need is felt by many others who are now approaching 
the subject. 

It must be realized that the old school, even that of five years ago, has passed just as surely as the little red school- 
house that once stood on the hill. In its place has already appeared the new, throbbing, spirited institution, receiving 
its impulse from the heart of industry, commerce, and society, which, in turn, are looking to the school for practical 
aid in the solving of their accumulating problems of trade, employment, and American citizenship. But this new 
school cannot stand alone ; it must rest on the foundations and traditions of its predecessor, just as the nation de- 
pends on the securely anchored constitutional footing given to it by its founders. It is this transition which the 
schoolman and the architect, working together and in sympathy, must bring about with saneness and economy. 

The organization of the school, through the extension of its branches, has become very complex to many who 
are out of touch with it; to those intimately associated with it, it is seen as a clearly unified development. The 
writer understood, that, if the organization was to be properly presented, it should be described by those who know 
it best. Therefore, the collaborators were selected with much care, and their contributions are a very important 
part of the book. A deep debt of gratitude is felt for all the assistance these associates have given ; they have 
entered into the work with a zeal and interest that has surpassed all anticipation. The conferences and discussions 
have been a great pleasure and an education in themselves. 

Particularly has the author profited in discussing the problems of the school with Mr. William F. Ewing, formerly 
Director of Business Affairs of the Technical High School, Oakland, California, whose vision of the school of the 
future is most delightfully hopeful; and with Dr. Edna Watson Bailey, Head of the Science Department of the 
University High School of the same city, who is eminently successful in arousing the interest of her students. 

Acknowledgment is due for the encouragement and aid so cheerfully extended by Mr. William C. Bruce, Editor 
of the American School Board Journal, and by Mr. W. H. Crocker, Editor of the American Architect, whose splendid 
journals have often been a source of valuable information; also to Mr. George M. Thiriot, Head of the Academic 
Department of the Technical Continuation School, Oakland, California, for his valuable assistance in editing the 
manuscript prepared by the writer. 

The author is deeply grateful to his fellow architects who have so kindly furnished photographs and drawings of 
their work. He hopes the book will be helpful in providing plans for schoolhouses in which the highest ideals of 
the American school may be more effectively realized. 

John J. Donovan 

Oakland, California 
June, 1920 



INTRODUCTION 

During the past quarter century, each succeeding year has witnessed the broadening development of public 
education. The relation of the school to the community has radically changed. Systems of education have been 
evolved as the result of the careful observation of those engaged in pedagogy, and these systems have become broad- 
ened and extended until the present aspect of modern educational methods is closely allied to the best elements of 
paternalism. 

With this evolution and extension of educational methods it was logical to assume that the modern schoolhouse 
would keep pace in its designing and planning. In addition to the development of the school building and its sur- 
roundings for educational purposes, there has been developed, particularly in the larger cities, a further use of the 
schoolhouse as the community center. This added use of the school building has increased the problems that are 
present in the arrangement of plan and the perfection of design. 

The problem, therefore, that confronts the architect who undertakes to provide school accommodations is per- 
haps more complex than any other professional task he may be given. The very elements of paternalism that sur- 
round the modern school building not only carry with them the obligation to provide such convenient and at- 
tractive features as are possible of attainment with the money available, but there is also the even more important 
element that looks to the safeguarding of the pupils' health and the measures that will be necessary to protect them 
from every possible injury. 

Architects engaged in this responsible work need to know the essentials of hygiene and sanitation. Ventilation, 
heating, lighting, both natural and artificial, must all be carefully considered. Men who have spent years of suc- 
cessful practice in the solution of the problems that surround the modern schoolhouse will have acquired as the re- 
sult of long practice, close study, and observation, a wide fund of information that is practical and valuable as it is 
based on actual operations. 

The successful stage to which schoolhouse design has been brought in this country is primarily due to three groups 
of men who prominently stand forth as the best exponents of the development of the modern school buildings. 
These groups, located on the eastern seaboard, in the middle west, and on the Pacific coast, are responsible for the 
development of successful types of school buildings. The author of this book is prominent among the members of 
these three groups. His success in the special field of architecture, to which he has devoted so many years of practice, 
makes this work absolutely authoritative and dependable. Its method of preparation is calculated to greatly sim- 
plify its use as an encyclopedic treatise on the subject. Whether used by architects, members of school boards, 
superintendents, or any of the many people who are directly interested in the various phases of the modern school- 
house and modern educational methods, this work clearly sets forth the answer to every question that is likely to 
arise. 

W. H. Crocker 

Editor, The American Architect 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER . PAGE 

I. Sites and Grounds i 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

II. Architecture, Planning, and Construction 18 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

III. Landscape Development of School Grounds 61 

Howard Gilkey, B.S., Landscape Architect. 

IV. Cost of School Buildings 70 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

V. Organization of the Elementary School as Affecting Buildings 85 

E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. 

VI. Organization of the Intermediate or Junior High School as Affecting Buildings . . .111 

E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. 

VII. Organization and Administration of Senior High Schools as Affecting Buildings . . .126 

Clarence D. Kingsley, M.A., Supervisor of High Schools, Massachusetts Department of Education. 

VIII. Buildings and Equipment for Vocational Schools 157 

J. C. Wright, Acting Assistant Director for Industrial Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education. 

LX. The Hygiene of Schools 204 

Robert T. Legge, M.D., Professor of Hygiene and University Physician, University of California. Fellow of American 
College of Surgeons, Captain, Medical Corps, United States Army. 

X. Physical Education . 218 

Jay B. Nash, A.B., Assistant State Supervisor of Physical Education, California. 

XL Administrative Offices in Public School Buildings 243 

William F. Ewing, M.A., Principal of Pasadena High School, Pasadena, California. 

XII. The Classroom . 253 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

XIII. The Kindergarten . 279 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

XIV. The School Library 291 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

XV. Corridors, Stairways, and Entrances 305 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

XVI. The Assembly Hall 320 

John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

XVII. The Music Department 342 

Glen H. Woods, A.A.G.O., Director of Music School Department, Oakland, California. 

XVIII. Physics and Chemistry 350 

Arthur L. Jordan, Head of Department of Science, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, California. 

XIX. The General Science and Biological Laboratories 385 

Edna Watson Bailey, Ph.D., Head of Science Department, University High School, Oakland, California. 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XX. Commercial Department 397 

Reginald R. Stuart, Principal, Oakland Technical Continuation High School, Oakland, California. 

XXI. The Drawing Department 4II 

Ralph C. Sisson, B.S., M.A., Instructor in Drawing, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 

XXII. The Industrial Arts Department 424 

Walter A. Tenney, Principal, Vocational High School, Oakland, California. 

XXIII. The Home Economics Department 468 

Agnes Fay Morgan, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Household Science, University of California, Berkeley, California. 

XXIV. The Cafeteria 5 i 3 

William R. Adams, Engineer of Hotel Equipment Department, Mangrum Otter Co., Inc., San Francisco, California. 

XXV. Heating and Ventilation 523 

George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
XXVI. Plumbing 541 

George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

XXVII. Electrical Installation and Illumination 550 

Romaine W. Myers, Consulting Electrical Engineer, Member of Illuminating Engineering Society. 

XXVIII. Standards op Schoolhouse Planning 569 

Frank Irving Cooper, Architect. Chairman, National Education Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Plan- 
ning and Construction. 



Supplementary Illustrations 
References 



Index 



575 
711 



713 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS 

Allen, James E. 

Lawrence, Mass. : Oliver School (assembly hall), 339. 

Allison and Allison 

Glendora, Calif. : Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. 
Monrovia, Calif. : Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. 
Santa Monica, Calif. : High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. 

Dickey, Chas. W., and Donovan, John J. 

Santa Barbara, Calif. : Proposed New High School, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. 
Elko, Nevada: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. 

Donovan, John J. 

Albany, Calif. : Elementary School, 637. 

General plans and characteristics of good school sites, 2, 3, 5, 7. 
Modesto, Calif. : Sewing Unit Layout for High School, 508. 

Oakland, Calif. : Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal's office) ; 270 (classroom showing 
open windows) ; 282 (kindergarten porch) ; 461 (manual training room) ; 491 (domestic science room) ; 
543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing and toilet systems). 
McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584. 
Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580. 
Theater- Auditorium, 329, 330. 
Palo Alto, Calif. : Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. 
Plans of Eye-strain Preventive Desks and Seats, 208, 209. 
Sacramento, Calif. : Oak Park Elementary School, 29, 30, 31. 
San Leandro, Calif. : McKinley School, 577, 578. 

Washington School, 578. 
San Luis Obispo, Calif. : Elementary School, 631. 
Donovan, John J., and Hobart, Louis P. (Associate Architect). 
Oakland, Calif. : Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582. 

Donovan, John J., and Hornbostel, Henry (Consulting Architect). 

Oakland, Calif.: Oakland Technical High School, 13 (group plan; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; 356, 362, 
378 (physics and chemistry lecture rooms and laboratories) ; 404, 406, 417 (bookkeeping, typing, 
and drawing rooms) ; 425, 429, 433, 441, 460 (shops) ; 487 (cooking room) ; 510 (costume-designing 
classroom). 
Donovan, John J., and Howard, John Galen (Associate Architect). 

Oakland, Calif. : Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds, actual layout) ; 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kinder- 
garten porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio). 
Donovan, John J., and Miller, Washington J. (Associate Architect). 

Oakland, Calif. : Jefferson School, 634, 635, 636. 
Donovan, John J., and Mullgardt, Louis C. (Associate Architect). 

Oakland, Calif. : Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606. 

Donovan, John J., and Reed, Walter D. (Associate Architect). 

Oakland, Calif. : Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS 



Garber and Woodward 

Cincinnati, Ohio : Guilford School, 624, 625, 626. 
Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623. 
Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630. 

Gee, Edwin M. 

Toledo, Ohio: Lincoln Elementary School (kindergarten), 285, 590, 591, 592, 593. 
Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. 

Gilkey, Howard 

Modesto, Calif. : Grounds of High School, 62. 

Gregg, Professor John W. 

Berkeley, Calif. John Muir School, 64. 

Fresno, Calif. : Longfellow School Grounds (landscape plan for proposed developments), 238. 
Imperial Valley, Calif. : Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. 
Kingsburg, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 67. 
Los Angeles, Calif. : High School (landscape plan), 65. 
Puente, Calif. : Union High School (landscape plan), 66. 

Wasco, Calif. : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park and park playground areas), 
242. 

GUILBERT, E. F. 

Newark, N. J. : South Side High School, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 340. 

GUILBERT AND BETELLE 

Newark, N. J. : Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290. 
Lafayette School, 32, t>Z- 
Ridge School, 600, 601. 
State Normal (detail of doorway), 599. 

Hays, Wm. C. 

San Francisco, Calif. : Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509. 

Holland, H. Osgood 

Buffalo, N. Y. : Hutchinson Central High School (library), 298, 299. 

Hussander, A. F. 

Chicago, 111. : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95. 

Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. 

Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228, 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336 

(assembly hall) ; 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703. 
Henry 0. Shepard School, 585, 586. 
Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. 
Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. 
Seating plans for classroom, 258. 

Ittner, Wm. B. 

Greenfield, Ohio : Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium) 5317 (main entrance vestibule) ; 649 

650, 651, 652. 
Minneapolis, Minn. : New High School (chemistry group), 381. 
Kirkwood, Mo. : Grammar School, 106, 107. 
St. Louis, Mo. : Ashland School, 105. 

Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten). 
Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19. 
Glasgow School, 104. 

Grover Cleveland High School, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146; 331, 332 (auditorium); 349 (music room); 
361 (physics laboratory) ; 382 (chemistry laboratory) ; 394 (conservatory) ; 395 (physiology labora- 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS 



Ittner, Wm. B. — Continued 

tory) ; 407 (typing room) ; 421, 422 (drawing rooms) ; 494 (cooking-room) ; 505 (laundry labora- 
tory) ; 516 (cafeteria). 
Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87; 287 (kindergarten). 
Washington, D. C. : Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor). 

Johnson, Wm. Templeton 

San Diego, Calif. : Francis W. Parker Elementary School, 213, 284, 594, 595, 596. 

KlLHAM AND HOPKINS 

Atlantic Heights, N. H. : Schoolhouse, 617, 618. 

Taunton, Mass. : Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672. 

Lawrence and Holford 

Portland, Ore. : Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621. 

Maginnis and Walsh 

New York, N. Y. : Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. 

McCORNACK, W. R. 

Cleveland, Ohio : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640. 
Almira School, 641, 642, 643, 644. 
Empire School, 645, 646, 647, 648. 

Morgan, Agnes Fay, and Donovan, John J. (collaborators). 

Plans of Home Economics Departments, 471, 472, 474, 476, 478, 489, 503, 511. 

Myers, Romaine W. (Consulting Electrical Engineer.) 

Plans of Electric Work, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558. 

Naramore, Floyd A. 

Portland, Oregon: Benson Polytechnic High School (boiler, engine, and fan rooms), 528, 529, 530, 533, 
535, 536. 
Franklin High School (boiler and toilet rooms), 537, 538, 547. 
New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540. 

Olmsted Brothers 

Fitchburg, Mass. : Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17. 

Packard, Frank L. (Architect), and Mueller, Frederick G. (Associate Architect). 
Hamilton, Ohio : High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. 

Packard, Frank L. (Architect), Snyder, Ralph (Associate Architect) , and Babitt, Edward N. (Engineer). 
Parkersburg, West Virginia : High School (Assembly hall), 341 ; 686, 687, 688, 689. 

Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton 

Downer's Grove, 111. : Kindergarten (floor plan and interior views), 288, 289. 
Evanston, 111. : Lincolnwood School, District 75, 338, 597, 598. 

Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. 
Kenilworth, 111.: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field); 41 (interior); 439 (foundry); 517 

(cafeteria) ; 659, 660, 661, 662. 
Winnetka, 111. : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36.. 
Pontiac, Mich. : High School (gymnasium), 227 ; 656, 657, 658. 
Fond du Lac, Wis. : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium). 

Poland, Wm. A. 

Trenton, N. J. : Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118 ; 229 (gymnasium) ; 333 (assembly hall) ; 
452 (printing shop) ; 498 (cooking-room). 

Ratcliff, Walter H., Jr. 

Berkeley, Calif. : Edison Junior High School, 124, 125. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY ARCHITECTS 



Reed, George E. (Mechanical Engineer). 

Heating and ventilating plans, 525, 526, 527. 
Plumbing systems, 542. 

Sanders, Theo. M. 

Little Rock, Ark. : Junior High School, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123. 

Sellons and Pearson 

Sacramento, Calif. : Fremont School (open-air kindergarten), 290. 

Snyder, C. B. J. 

Brooklyn, N. Y. : Boys' High School (plan of library), 300. 
Girls' High School (plan of library), 301, 302. 
Public School No. 29 (interior plans), 259, 314, 410, 480. 

Stotz, Edward A. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. : Schenley High School (interior views), 296, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501, 663, 664, 665. 
Symmes, Edwin J. (Architect), and Crim, William H. (Associate Architect). 

Crystal Springs, Calif. : Preliminary Sketch, 602, 603. 

Tenney, Walter A., and Donovan, John J. (collaborators). 

Plans of shops for large cosmopolitan high school, 426, 428, 432, 438, 440, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457, 459, 464. 

Power hammer foundation, 443. 

Shop lecture and exhibit rooms, 466. 
Whitehouse and Fouilhoux 

Astoria, Oregon: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612. 

Portland, Oregon: Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 

Arkansas 

Little Rock: Junior High School, 119, 120. 121, 122, 123. 

California 

Albany: Elementary School, 637. 

Berkeley: Edison Junior High School, 124, 125. 

John Muir Elementary School, 64. 

University of California (Dental Clinic), 216; (bookstack) 297. 
Crystal School District : Grammar School, 602, 603. 
Fresno : Longfellow School Grounds, 238. 
Glendora: Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. 
Imperial Valley : Westmoreland School Grounds, 68. 
Kingsburg: Union High School (landscape plan), 67. 
Los Angeles: High School (landscape development), 65. 

Lincoln High School (trade sewing- room) , 512. 
Modesto : High School (grounds), 62 ; (sewing unit layout), 508. 
Monrovia: Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. 
Oakland: Bushrod Playground, 239, 241. 

Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633. 

Clawson Elementary School, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 ; 247 (principal's office) ; 270 (classroom) ; 281, 282 (kinder- 
garten); 461, 491 (manual training and domestic science rooms); 543, 544, 546, 548 (plumbing 
system). 

Durant Elementary School, 604, 605, 606. 

Emerson Elementary School, 12, 234 (grounds and actual layout); 25, 26, 27, 28; 236 (kindergarten 
porch) ; 273 (open windows in patio). 

Jefferson Elementary School, 634, 635, 636. 

Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582. 

McChesney Elementary School, 582, 583, 584. 

Mosswood Park (tennis grounds), 240; (hockey field), 241. 

Oakland Technical High School, 13 (group plan) ; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49; 356, 362, 377, 378, 404, 
406, 417, 425, 429, 433, 441, 460, 487, and 510 (lecture rooms, laboratories, and shops). 

Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 580. 

Theater- Auditorium, 329, 330. 
Palo Alto: Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, 96, 97, 98, 99, 212. 
Puente : Union High School (landscape plan), 66. 
Sacramento : Fremont School (kindergarten), 290. 

Oak Park School, 29, 30, 31. 
San Diego: Francis W. Parker School, 213; (kindergarten), 284; 594, 595, 596. 
San Francisco: Lux School (interior views), 499, 500, 502, 506, 507, 509. 
San Leandro : McKinley School, 577, 578. 

Washington School, 578. 
San Luis Obispo : Elementary School, 631. 

Santa Barbara : Proposed new high school, 14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131. 
Santa Monica: High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. 
Wasco : Union High School (proposed arrangement for buildings and park, and playground areas), 242. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 



Colorado 

Sterling: Logan County Industrial Arts High School, 197, 198. 
District or Columbia 

Washington: Central High School, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60; 306 (main corridor). 
Illinois 

Chicago : Albert R. Sabin School, 94, 95. 

Alexander Graham Bell School, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. 

Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, 228 ; 231 (gymnasium) ; 316 (main entrance lobby) ; 335, 336 

(assembly hall) ; 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703. 
Henry O. Shepard School, 585, 586. 
Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. 
Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589. 
Downer's Grove : Kindergarten, 288, 289. 
Evanston: Lincolnwood School District 75; (assembly hall), 338, 597, 598. 

Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103. 
Kenilworth: New Trier Township High School, 15 (athletic field) ; 41 (interior view) ; 439 (foundry); 517 

(cafeteria) ; 659, 660, 661, 662. 
Pullman: Pullman Free School of Manual Training, 187, 188, 189. 
Winnetka : Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. 
Massachusetts 

Boston : Plan of cooking room for elementary schools, 485. 
Plan of physics laboratories, 360. 
Wentworth Institute, 184, 185, 186, 187. 
Fitchburg: Crocker Field, 15, 16, 17. 
Lawrence : Oliver School (assembly hall) 339. 
New Bedford : Vocational School, 182. 
Northampton: Smith Agricultural School, 196, 199. 
Taunton : Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 070, 671, 672. 
Worcester: Boys' Trade School, 172, 173. 
Michigan 

Pontiac: High School, 227 (gymnasium) ; 656, 657, 658. 
Minnesota 

Minneapolis: New High School (chemistry group), 381. 

William Hood Dunwoody Institute, 178, 179, 180. 
Rochester: High School (library), 292. 
Missouri 

Kansas City : Jane Hayes Gate Institute, 194. 
Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, 177. 
Kirkwood : Grammar School, 106, 107. 
St. Louis, Ashland School, 105. 

Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24; 285, 286 (kindergarten). 

Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19. 

David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, 174. 

Glasgow School, 104. 

Grover Cleveland High School, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146; 331, 332, 349, 361, 382, 394, 395. 407, 421, 

422, 494, 505, 516 (interior views). 
Laclede Elementary School, 86, 87 ; 287 (kindergarten) 
Nevada 

Elko: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. 
New Hampshire 

Atlantic Heights: Schoolhouse, 617, 618. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS BY LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 



New Jersey 

Bayonne : Vocational School, 183. 

Newark: Cleveland School (kindergarten), 290. 

Lafayette School, 32, ^t,. 

Ridge School, 600, 601. 

South Side High School, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137 ; 340 (assembly hall). 

State Normal (detail of doorway), 599. 

Vocational School, 190, 191, 192. 
Trenton: Junior High School, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118; 229 (gymnasium); ^^^ (assembly hall); 452 
(shop) ; 498 (cooking room) . 

New Mexico 

Albuquerque : Electrical equipment in University of New Mexico, 493. 

New York 

Brooklyn: Boys' High School (library), 300. 

Girls' High School (library), 301, 302. 

Pratt Institute (laboratories) 367, 368, 370, 371, 373. 

Public School No. 29 (interior views), 259, 314, 410, 480. 
Buffalo: Hutchinson Central High School, 298, 299 (library) ; 304 (museum cases). 
New York: Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. 

Teachers College, Columbia University (laundry laboratory), 504. 
Ohio 

Cleveland : Addison Elementary School, 638, 639, 640. 

Almira School, 641, 642, 643, 644. 

Empire School, 645, 646, 647, 648. 
Cincinnati: Guilford School, 624, 625, 626. 

Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623. 

Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 630. 
Greenfield: Edward Lee McLean High School, 230 (gymnasium); 317 (front entrance vestibule), 649, 650, 

651, 652. 
Hamilton: High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. 
Toledo: Lincoln School (kindergarten), 285; 590, 591, 592, 593. 

Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. 

Oregon 

Astoria: Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612. 

Portland: Benson Polytechnic High School, 434, 448, 449, 455, 458 (shops) ; 528, 529, 530, 532, 533, 535, 536 
(boiler and fan rooms). 
Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621. 

Franklin High School, 537, 538 (boiler room) ; 547 (toilet room). 
Lincoln High School, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. 
New Couch School (fan installation), 539, 540. 

Pennsylvania 

Pittsburgh : Schenley High School (interior views) ; 296, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 501 ; 663, 664, 665. 

Williamson: Free School of Mechanical Trades, 176. 
West Virginia 

Parkersburg: High School 314 (assembly hall) ; 686, 687, 688, 689. 
Wisconsin 

Fond du Lac : Edward S. Bragg School, 100, 101 ; 337 (assembly hall gymnasium). 

Milwaukee: Boys' Technical High School, 181. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



CHAPTER I 



SITES AND GROUNDS 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

General Plan of School Sites. Zone Planning. Characteristics of Good School Sites. Size of School Sites. The Elementary 
School Play Areas. The Junior High School Play Areas. High School Sites. Location of the Building. Surfacing of Playgrounds, 
(i) Oil Macadam. (2) Asphalt Surfacing on Rock. (3) Asphalt Surfacing on Concrete. Fencing of Grounds. Wider Use of School 
Grounds. Play Yard Accommodations. 



The arts, the architecture, the literature, and the 
laws of a nation reflect the culture and intelligence of 
its people at every period of its history. In this day 
and age, however, the selection of school sites is a fair 
indication of the wisdom and farsightedness of the repre- 
sentatives of our people and of the people themselves, 
so important has such selection become. 

The school building has its limitations, but the site 
has none. As a school site it may be abandoned on 
account of changes in residential or industrial condi- 
tions. But if it is well chosen for the intrinsic values 
a school site should have, it will always be valuable 
either to the school department as school grounds, or 
to the municipality as public playgrounds. 

While the vision of the people as a whole has been 
slower than the growth of the school and the activities 
surrounding it, nurturing that vision by constructive 
suggestion is probably better than railing about the 
errors of the past. Patriotism and civic interest, now 
so brilliant, will do much to dispel shortsightedness and 
the lack of understanding of the great problem of good 
citizenship, which is founded on education and the 
associations and activities allied with education. The 
great war has strengthened many of the frailties of 
humanity and awakened the nation to the necessity of 
health and physical vigor as well as of scientific intel- 
lectual development. For the health of the mind seldom 
rises above the health of the body, and a healthful, 
vigorous body is the foundation for a sound, vigorous 
mind. They are parallel, and the rounding out of both 
should be simultaneous. Therefore, when discussing a 
school plant, either of one or of many schools, visions 
of children and adults at play and recreation should 
be uppermost in mind. Playgrounds are as important 



a part of the equipment of an educational plant as the 
buildings. 

The large percentage of rejected young men of draft 
age who failed to qualify as physically fit for the army 
or the navy has demonstrated the necessity of super- 
vision of play and physical training for both boys and 
young men. Also the demands of the new vocations 
thrust upon girls and women make it mandatory that 
they too shall have an equal opportunity to prepare 
themselves physically to meet life's duties with confi- 
dence. The great possibilities before the nation rest 
entirely upon the opportunities for universal physical 
and intellectual education, not upon the development 
of a few prodigies. The war has taught many lessons, 
but none more thoroughly than that of the necessity of 
physical fitness. 

General Plan of School Sites. — Before discussing 
the selection of a particular site, it would be wise to 
look at the larger problem of selecting many sites, and 
of following some definite plan in building up a plant 
of many separate units. The procrastinating and hap- 
hazard custom, so common to nearly all communities, 
of waiting until congestion forces action for enlarging 
or extending the existing plant, works to disadvantage, 
because, when steps are taken, they must of necessity 
be hasty and often ill-advised. The consequence is 
that the cost of grounds is greater than it need be if 
sites were obtained with definite regularity according 
to a carefully prepared plan that has flexibility as one 
of its chief assets. Where necessary, present laws 
should be revised or new laws drawn to enable boards 
of education to purchase and dispose of land quickly 
and with the least inconvenience. The present laws 
are probably ample for the purchase of land ; they 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



should be revised to permit of the disposal of land easily. 
They would then permit the buying of land from five to 
eight years, or longer, in advance of the existing need, 
and would enable school boards to retain it for school 
purposes or dispose of it as the later prevailing condi- 
tions warranted. Without going into detail here, there 
are sufficient ways and means to safeguard against fraudu- 
lent and incompetent selections. Such selections, even 
at their worst, could hardly equal the economic waste 
of the prevailing methods. 




This leads up to planning for sites, and what kind of 
property a school board should select for school grounds. 
First of all, the map of the city should be plotted geo- 
graphically according to zones based on the census of 
elementary, intermediate, and high school pupils. If 
the elementary, intermediate, and senior high school 
plan is adopted as the educational system of the city, 
it will make the general planning easier, reduce the cost 
of housing per pupil, and give greater facilities for 



immediate relief in times of congestion. Keeping in 
mind, however, the school population as the basis to 
work upon, the intermediate schools of the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth grades should be the centers of circles 
having radii of one to one and one-quarter miles; the 
perimeters of these circles should be approximately the 
line of location of the outer boundary of the elementary 
school zone. In turn, the elementary schools should 
be spaced within the intermediate school areas not 
farther apart than one mile. (See Figures i and ia.) 
In other words, their location should be the 
centers of circles whose radii are one-half to 
three-quarters of a mile, the proximity de- 
pending entirely upon the population. Chil- 
dren below the sixth grade (n years of age) 
should not be compelled to walk farther to 
school than one-half to three-quarters of a 
mile. Special attention should be given to 
conditions such as railroad crossings, high- 
ways much used by automobiles, and active 
city streets. Good planning will save many 
a mother unnecessary worry for the safety 
of her child and often will save the child's 
life. 

Centers for high school zones are not as 
much restricted in regard to distances apart 
as are those of the intermediate and elemen- 
tary schools, for the reason that the students 
attending the high school are more mature, 
and many of them arrive by means of bicycles, 
automobiles, or the street cars. Moreover, 
high school sites must be of such large acreage 
that size and cost are important factors, and 
it is very often the case that suitable sites 
cannot be found within a mile or more of 
the center of a high school zone. However, 
they are a part of the general plan, and the 
difficulty of obtaining such desirable sites 
emphasizes all the more the necessity of 
planning in advance. 

Zone Planning. — Zone planning for school 
u.ra r-u Mins g roun( j s j s s i m piy another phase of modern 
4 ' city planning whereby the economic saving 
of the city may be increased through elimina- 
tion of waste in both the erection of school buildings 
and the buying and development of school sites. 

For instance, zone planning would prevent the need- 
less duplication of a number of departments in the ele- 
mentary and intermediate schools. Whenever an ele- 
mentary school attempts to maintain the full number 
of grades, that is from one to eight, it is necessary to pro- 
vide a complete plant containing a large assembly hall, 
sewing and cooking rooms, manual training rooms, 



SITES AND GROUNDS 




Map Showing the Distribution of Present Schools, Proposed Additions, and Proposed New Schools 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



extensive sheltered playrooms, a large administration 
suite, and other rooms and spaces accessory to class- 
rooms and needed in a school of this kind. These are 
necessary almost entirely on account of the older pupils 
in the school, say from the sixth to the eighth grade. 
Now an examination of the enrollment of the different 
grades of the elementary school will disclose the fact that 
the preponderance of attendance is in the lower grades. 
The result becomes something that no wise business 
man would tolerate, — a large and expensive part of 
the plant in use only part time by a minority of the 
pupils and exactly duplicated in every one of the other 
elementary schools. 

It is this economic waste of duplication that the method 
of zone planning would eliminate. The upper grades 
in the elementary school of the present system, from 
the seventh to the eighth inclusive, and the first grade 
of the high school, would be concentrated in one centrally 
located intermediate school which would contain com- 
plete departmental equipment for the pupils of these 
grades. This organization would at once relieve the 
elementary schools within its zone of the further necessity 
for such extensive equipment. It is safe to say that 
one such intermediate school, accommodating 1200 
pupils, would provide for about 500 graduates yearly 
from the near-by elementary schools whose combined 
enrollment would be from 3500 to 4000 pupils. Nor 
would this method prevent the construction of any of the 
above-mentioned departments in the elementary schools 
wherever they could be so adjusted to the needs of the 
pupils below the seventh grade that they would be in 
constant and profitable use during the school day. 1 
This plan would further enable school boards to prac- 
tice economy in securing an adequate site for each kind 
of school. While it is true that the enrollment of some 
elementary schools may be larger than that of the inter- 
mediate schools, nevertheless the former require smaller 
areas for playgrounds than the latter, just as the inter- 
mediate school requires less space than the high school. 
This difference is due to the different kinds of recreation 
required by the pupils of the respective schools. When 
the development of any school district is planned for in 
advance, and the general school scheme is carefully 
. plotted, desirable sites can be purchased with much 
more economy than later when the pressure of increasing 
population makes their purchase necessary wherever 
they may be had and at whatever price may be asked. 
It is true that under present conditions school boards may 
hesitate about buying land in advance, for fear that it 
may never be used. This situation, as has been said 
before, can be changed by the enactment of laws that will 



permit the disposal of school land whenever such dis- 
posal will be advantageous to the community. 

The above recommendations for zone planning of 
school sites would necessarily be modified when consid- 
ering the housing of educational plants in industrial 
sections of the school district, or in sections of a city 
densely populated by foreign-born residents. Every 
large city is confronted with this special educational 
problem as well as the housing problem in such districts. 
Whatever educational methods are adopted they must, 
of necessity, be flexible so that modifications may be 
easily and quickly made, in order that the school may 
retain the interest of not only the pupil but the parents 
as well. Very often in these districts, the fifth and 
sixth grades are the termination of education for a 
great many pupils, who then leave school to seek em- 
ployment. Consequently, promoting such pupils to an 
intermediate school in another section of the district, 
even though it is near by, would in the greater number 
of cases be equivalent to ending their school attendance. 
In view of this fact it is the business of the school to pro- 
vide a type of education for these students which would 
be attractive enough to hold them beyond the sixth 
grade. This type should consist of instruction in 
household arts, industrial arts, and physical education 
for the pupils in addition to the usual elementary studies, 
and some form of instruction for adults that will bring 
the parents into closer contact with the school. This 
departmental work or vocational education should 
begin as early as possible in these schools and extend to 
and include the ninth grade. The vocational training 
should be thorough, and the teachers should be not 
only able leaders in this special work but should be in 
hearty sympathy with the pupils and the parents, 
without any show of patronizing cant. If the effort to 
further Americanization of foreigners is to succeed, 
its strongest impetus must come from the school; for 
it is by giving to these people the belief that the school 
is especially for their use and for their social, educational, 
and industrial development that the effort can succeed. 

The solution of this problem cannot be prescribed by 
any long-distance methods but only by close contact 
with these people and in accord with them. Conse- 
quently, such divisions of the general zone planning 
should be treated differently from the general planning 
for residential sections ; but they should be incorporated 
into the plan as a whole. 

Characteristics of Good School Sites. — Before dis- 
cussing the matter of size, let us consider the character 
of sites appropriate to school buildings. As a first step 
it would be good practice to call in a reputable health 



1 This does not take into consideration the Gary systei 
school system in practice throughout the country. 



which in its curricu'um and conduct of studies is different from the general elementary 



SITES AND GROUNDS 



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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



officer to pass judgment upon the sanitation of all sites. 
This may seem extreme, but surveys of schools and the 
records of unhealthful conditions found surrounding 
some selections of even recent date prompt the belief 
that the advice of a health officer is needed. Low, 
swampy, boggy land should be avoided. On the other 
hand, hill sites are of little or no value, for no games can 
be played on a hillside. The additional expense for 
grading will probably make the hill site the most expen- 
sive in the end, regardless of its first cost. Land suitable 
for school sites should be nearly level with even gradients 
sloping down toward the property lines. This state- 
ment applies for all schools, although there are times 
when certain changes in the topography of the lot would 
offer an opportunity for natural stadiums adaptable for 
large athletic fields. In these cases the vision and 
training of a good planner will be required, not only to 
discover, but to execute. Many a splendid opportunity 
in the selection of school sites has gone begging because 
of lack of vision. 

Sites along railroad tracks should be rejected on 
account of danger and noises. Also, sites on streets 
having car lines should be carefully studied with refer- 
ence to the location of the buildings and their proximity 
to the street. If the site is large enough to permit placing 
the building at such distance from the car lines that 
the noise will not be disturbing, and if the resulting loca- 
tion of the building does not destroy the grounds for 
play and athletic games, such sites may not be objec- 
tionable. Even then, however, there may be cause for 
doubt. 

Locations adjacent to factories, boiler shops, stables, 
fire hazards, hospitals, fire-engine houses, jails, or any 
such buildings should never be purchased. Further- 
more, local ordinances should prevent any such build- 
ings from being erected after a school site has once been 
purchased and built upon. Before any site is selected 
for school purposes, a careful survey should be made of 
the actual conditions of the land, of its possibilities for 
development as a school site and playground, and of 
the buildings and their uses within 1500 feet of the 
proposed site. If this is done by disinterested persons, 
and their findings recorded, there will be very few 
objectionable school sites purchased by school depart- 
ments. That this may be done thoroughly, a printed 
questionnaire or form including all objectionable and 
all favorable features should be given to the committee 
on sites. Also a topographical drawing or survey show- 
ing the grades and lot lines, prepared by a reputable 
engineer, should be required of every owner desiring to 
sell land for school property, or should be made at the 



1 Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education appointed by the National Education Association, 
the Federal Bureau of Education in Bulletin 1917, No. 50. 



school board's expense before the transaction is closed. 
Such a survey may not always be necessary, but it 
costs so little and is generally of such use that it is worth 
while. 

Size of School Sites. — The question of the size of 
school grounds should be approached from the practical 
as well as from the ideal viewpoint. It would bankrupt 
any city if all the school sites were of such large acreage 
as to permit running tracks, football fields, etc. More- 
over, school sites within such highly developed zones 
as interior city blocks are so costly that if schools must 
be placed within such zones, it is often necessary to 
limit the school site to a single block, or even less. City 
blocks are usually of such dimensions as 200' X 300', 
2 5°'X30o', or 2oo'X4oo'; an acre contains 43,560 
square feet; therefore, the block of the first dimensions 
would contain 1.38 acres, the second 1.7 acres, and the 
third 1.84 acres. None of these lots, after allowing 
sufficient room for the building and certain reservations 
for the future growth of the school, will leave space 
enough for a baseball field of regulation size. They 
will, however, provide ground space for tennis, hand- 
ball, basket ball, volley ball, indoor baseball, and play 
space for the smaller children. Consequently, as far 
as possible, such sites should be limited to elementary 
schools. This does not mean, however, that all elemen- 
tary school sites should be restricted in area to city 
blocks. On the contrary, elementary school sites 
should contain from 2\ to 3 acres as a minimum, and 
decidedly so if the school is to house more than 500 
pupils. This area will become more and more manda- 
tory, as many states already require physical education 
as part of the school curriculum. According to the 
recommendation of the National Education Association, 
of 272 square feet per child for play, recreation, and 
gardening, it is evident that an area of three acres is 
not too large for an elementary school site. 

A review of the opinion of Mr. Henry S. Curtis, 1 
former Secretary of the Playground Association of 
America, seems at first sight to indicate a smaller allot- 
ment of space. " Curtis's estimate for elementary 
school buildings calls for two acres. Organized games 
— baseball, indoor baseball, volley ball, tennis, basket 
ball — call for i-g$ acres, leaving ^ acre for general, 
unorganized play, running track, and pool. Curtis's 
estimate on the basis of two acres for 684 pupils is equiva- 
lent to 127 square feet per pupil for elementary schools." 
Since nothing is said about the space to be occupied by 
the building itself, evidently the article is dealing with 
play space only. This fact will then account for the 
difference between the figure of 272 square feet per 

Published by 



SITES AND GROUNDS 



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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



pupil demanded by the National Education Association 
and the figure of 127 square feet given by Mr. Curtis. 
The former is an allowance of space of about i5'Xi8', 
and the latter about io'Xi3' per pupil. These dimen- 
sions are quoted to enable school boards to see how men 
familiar with recreation activities are attacking the prob- 
lem of preserving and developing the health and physical 
fitness of school children. 

The Elementary School Play Areas. — The following 
equipment and areas are recommended by the writer 
for elementary school playgrounds and are separate 
from the baseball field. (See Figure 2.) 



Boys' Yard. 




One basket ball court 50' X 70' . . 


. 3,500 square feet 


One tennis court 50' X 100' (court proper 


is36'X78') overall 5,000 " " 


Two volley ball courts, each 25' X50' 


2,500 " " 


Two handball courts, each 2o'X36' 


• i,44o " 


Allowance around courts about . . 


4,000 " " 


Space for gymnasium apparatus . . 


5,000 " " 


General play space at least . . . 


. 20,000 " 




41,440 " " 


Girls' Yard. 




One basket ball court 50' X 70' . . . 


3,500 square feet 


One tennis court 50' X 100' . . . 


5,000 " " 


Two volley ball courts, each 2 5'X5o' 


2,500 " " 


One handball court 20' X 3 6' . . . 


720 " " 


Allowance for space around courts . 


4,000 " " 


Gymnasium apparatus 


- 000 it « 


Dancing pavilion 30' X 60' .... 


. 1,800 " 


General play space 


. 10,000 " " 




32,520 " " 



Small Children's Space. 
Sand box 1 

> about 5000 square feet, 
bee-saws 



total area of about 78,960 square feet, 



Slides 
The above requires 
about 1.7 acres. 



The Junior High School Play Areas. — The junior 
high school site is quite another matter, and as this 
school should be the general center of community 
interest, it follows that the grounds should have the same 
relation to outdoor activity as the building has as a place 
for meetings of citizens vitally interested in civic affairs. 
Many are of the opinion that it is an economic waste 
to provide especially designed rooms for public club- 
rooms in every school, because they are used so infre- 
quently and by so few that the expense is needless, and 
the money could be more wisely spent in providing 
additional classrooms for instruction of children for 
whom the school is built. On the other hand, it may be 
recommended most heartily that such provisions be 
afforded in schools centered like the intermediate school. 
A mile or a little farther is not too far for a man or 
woman to travel to attend community affairs. The 



larger the district, the larger the number likely to 
attend, and the greater the number, the more likely 
will better understanding and judgment prevail. All 
schools should be free for use by the people and at 
their pleasure, but only in central schools should special 
provisions be made, such as clubrooms and especially 
large playgrounds. 

The junior high school grounds should be the com- 
bination of the municipal and school playground, and 
consequently, should be large enough to permit at least 
two baseball games to be played at the same time, and 
to provide for other games as well. The three-acre tract 
for the elementary school will permit of one baseball field 
of regulation size, and this will also provide space for the 
play of the smaller children, besides providing tennis 
and other courts for adults. However, the opportunity 
for community development will be found in the junior 
high school and its grounds. . 

The following is a good example of the area required 
for such a school site : 

(1) The athletic field should include a quarter mile 
running track. The space within the oval will provide 
for two baseball diamonds, or one football field. High 
jump, broad jump, and pole vault pits can be placed 
inside this inclosure. The area required for this is 
about four and one-half acres. (See Figure 3.) 

(2) Four tennis courts, each 6o / Xi2o', should be pro- 
vided and will require an area of 28,800 square feet. To 
this should be added about 10% for approaches. There- 
fore, the allowance for tennis is about f of an acre. 

(3) One swimming pool about 3o'X75' (for the pool 
only) with dressing rooms for about 75 men and 50 
women. This will require about \ of an acre. It is quite 
unlikely that a swimming pool would be provided in the 
grounds or buildings of every intermediate school. But 
a city having such schools and public playgrounds 
should have at least one swimming pool for every 
25,000 in population. 

(4) In addition to the above there should be three 
smaller divisions of the grounds as follows : 

(A) Boys' division, containing : 

2 Basket ball courts. 

2 Handball courts, each 2o'X36'. 

2 Volley ball courts. 
Space for gymnasium apparatus, about 5000 square 
feet. All of which will require about 16,500 square feet 
or about -^ of an acre. 

(B) Girls' division, containing : 

2 Girls' basket ball courts. 
2 Handball courts. 
2 Volley ball courts. 
Space for girls' gymnasium apparatus, about 5000 
square feet. 



SITES AND GROUNDS 



Indoor baseball grounds with base lines 40 feet in 
length, allowing about 2000 square feet. 

Dance platform and provision for using piano, about 
2500 square feet, or a total of about 20,440 square feet, 
nearly \ an acre. 

(C) Small children's division containing : Sand boxes, 
swings, seesaws, and slides. This space will require 
about 8500 square feet, or about \ of an acre. This 
section should be isolated from the rest of the grounds 
and sufficiently removed from the building that it may 
be opened for use without restriction as to time during 
the day by the very small children accompanied by 
their mothers or nurses. At the elementary school, 
the small children's play space and equipment should 
be arranged close to the building, as it is not used except 
at recess periods. 

The plan outlined above, without taking into account 
the building area, approaches, lawns, gardens, etc., 
equals about 7 acres ; so it is safe to say that an inter- 
mediate school site which will serve as a community 
center will require at least 10 acres, which space is 
quite in keeping with the recommendation of the 
National Education Association of 272 square feet per 
pupil. 

In order that adults, intermediate school pupils, and 
smaller children may occupy the grounds at the same 
time, it is advisable that the entire site be properly 
planned, setting off spaces for the different classifications 
of play, and that some of the divisions be formed by 
appropriate wire fences or hedges. The space for the 
boys and adults requires little or no division. The 
gardens, however, require protection from the outside 
and from the play space, and the girls' play area should 
be separated from the boys' play yard and field by a 
fence, hedge, or terrace. 

As in the planning of buildings, there is every oppor- 
tunity to be wasteful in the planning of school grounds ; 
therefore, every precaution is necessary to prevent 
useless waste, especially in overlapping the areas for 
games. It is greatly desired in the laying out of the 
grounds that an experienced physical director collaborate 
with the architect and the landscape designer. Such 
cooperation of experts will bring about the planning 
of grounds adaptable to the curriculum, will assure the 
movement of the school to and from the grounds between 
the periods, and will pave the way for utility and order 
in the general treatment. 

High School Sites. — Sites for high schools should 
be enlarged to about double the size of those for inter- 
mediate school grounds. This is recommended because 
high school grounds should have the character of the 
college campus. The day has arrived when high schools 
are being planned as groups of buildings, not more than 



two or three stories high, with the different departments 
in separate buildings connected by open or inclosed 
arcades or wings. In the larger cities, due to cost of 
land, it may be necessary to have the high school under 
one roof and within the limits of a single block. This 
means that there must be four or more stories to the 
building. But the trend of the times is to locate 
secondary schools in sparsely settled sections of the 
cities where the buildings may be spread out and their 
height reduced. This is desirable, as it means better 
lighting, better natural ventilation, fewer fire hazards, 
besides reducing the exertion of stair-climbing for girls. 
High schools planned in this manner give many oppor- 
tunities for pleasing courts, and approaches, at the same 
time furnishing to the plan spaces for lawns, shrubs, trees, 
etc., which in this manner are isolated from the play- 
grounds and preserved. Properly treated school fore- 
grounds and courts are valuable points of interest in com- 
munities. 

Cities keeping step with progress in education are 
providing high school sites containing twenty to twenty- 
five acres. Experimental gardens alone will require from 
three to five acres. The trade and industrial shops of 
the industrial arts department are generally planned to 
occupy separate buildings set some distance from other 
departments which require quietness. The gymnasium, 
closely allied with the athletic field, should also be in a 
separate building. The same is somewhat true of the 
music department with all its accompanying noises. 
It is also necessary that the girls should have a separate 
athletic field from that of the boys, as a great deal of the 
physical training, now compulsory, will be done in the 
open air. Therefore, in order to meet the many and 
diversified requirements of secondary education, large 
areas of ground for high schools are to-day as essential 
as large buildings. 

Location of the Building. — Many a well-planned 
school has been made almost useless by misplacing it 
on the site. Care should be taken to determine the 
disturbances surrounding the site, as has been pre- 
viously mentioned, and consideration given to future 
possibilities of new street car lines passing the school 
long after it is built. Likewise the fact must be remem- 
bered that small factories, garages, and other shops 
may locate near a proposed school, if they are not there 
already. Consequently, the school should be set far 
enough back from the street property lines to insure 
quietness for study at all times. Aside from the con- 
sideration of noises, it is a good plan to have plenty of 
space between the exits and the street, so that on leav- 
ing school the children will have sufficient time to over- 
come the excitement and haste which usually follow 
dismissal. Many accidents can be attributed to having 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the school too close to avenues and streets, always 
dangerous to heedless youngsters. 

If advantage is to be taken of the best orientation 
for the school and the classrooms, the location of the 
building is a very important factor. For instance, a 
rectangular plan, which is usually the most economical, 
adapts itself well to grounds having an east or west 
frontage when east and west light is desirable. Other 
forms of floor plans necessitated by conditions are often 
dependent upon the orientation of the lot for economy 
in cost and efficiency in administration. 

School children like to play or to congregate close to 
the building just before school opens and during recess 
periods ; therefore, these features of child life and habits 
should influence many points about the plan and the 
location of the building. The entrances used mostly by 
the pupils and the play spaces near the building are the 
centers where the children gather. In consequence of 
this the building should be located so that these spots, 
as far as possible, may receive the early morning sunshine 
for warmth and health. Every precaution should be 
taken to protect the health of children, and there are no 
more economical means than that of good planning and 
arrangement of buildings used by children if the authori- 
ties are familiar with the child's natural habits. 

The question of placing the large play yard or athletic 
field between the school and the street, or, as is generally 
the case, placing the building so that the athletic field 
is to the rear, is a matter which can be decided only after 
a thorough study has been made of the local conditions. 
The former plan with small grounds and a wide approach 
to the main entrance is a definite way to divide the 
grounds for the boys and for the girls and is one method 
of preventing noises from the street reaching the class- 
rooms. The plan of having the play yard at the rear 
or side makes the school more accessible to the pupils 
and especially to the public. There cannot be any 
definite rules governing this question, as it is a matter 
of knowledge of the problem and a complete study of 
the conditions surrounding the site, as well as of 
taking into account the orientation of the grounds and 
building. 

Surfacing of Playgrounds. — It is only within recent 
years that the school play yard has received much atten- 
tion to make it fit for children to play upon. Of all 
parts of the plant to be left unfinished, the play yard, 
with its hollows, rubbish, brickbats, and rough surfaces 
has been woefully neglected. Usually the entire appro- 
priation is spent in purchasing the site and building, 
and seldom, if ever, is there any provision in the budget 
for surfacing of grounds or for planting. Happily the 
awakening has brought about play yards that are de- 
lightful for children to play upon, and order and care 



have replaced the shiftless, slovenly appearing school 
playground. 

For ordinary purposes, two types of surfaces are 
needed for a school yard : 

(A) General play surface — namely, that type of 
surface which is adaptable for the large play area. This 
should be a surface that is not so hard as to cause 
injuries to children when falling, or so soft as to hinder 
them in free running games. Most of the large athletic 
games are played on a surface of this type, such as base- 
ball, football, soccer, hockey, etc. The best surface 
for games of this sort is lawn, but where expense is a 
large item, lawns are impracticable. A light sandy soil, 
when properly watered and rolled, will make a good 
surface. A sandy loam of a mixture of two-thirds loam 
and one-third sand, which will pack slightly, is probably 
the most practical. The particles of sand act as fine 
separators to the loam and keep the surface porous and 
prevent it from getting hard. This surfacing should be 
watered frequently to stay the dust during the summer, 
and lightly raked or brushed after freezing has set in 
to keep it soft for football. 

(B) The court surface, which is used for court games 
where a hard, level surface is required to give the ball 
an accurate bounce. This type of surface is needed in 
such games as basket ball, tennis, and handball.. If 
the surface is compact as described under (A), a further 
treatment with asphaltic oil and crushed rock screenings 
ranging in size from dust to \" and thoroughly rolled 
until the oil is completely absorbed will make a fair 
surface for these games. This, however, will never be 
very satisfactory and has little permanency. The 
better and most lasting surfaces for courts, and for areas 
within ioo feet of the school building, are oil macadam, 
asphalt on a crushed rock bed, or asphalt on a concrete 
slab. 

The following is a description of the method of apply- 
ing these three surfaces : 

Oil Macadam. — After the surface has been brought 
to the proper levels for drainage and grades, it should 
be rolled with a five ton roller until the subsurface is 
smooth and even. Over this surface should be spread a 
layer of clean crushed rock 3" deep, ranging in size from 
|" to \" . This layer should then be rolled and covered 
with a light layer of crushed rock dust or screenings, 
varying in size from dust to §" and rolled until the 
screenings partly fill the voids between the rock. Upon 
this surface should be spread one-half gallon of oil to 
the square yard of surface. Fine screenings should then 
be dusted over it, and the entire mass rolled until com- 
pact and hard. Upon this a second coat of oil should be 
spread to the extent of \ gallon to the square yard of sur- 
face, this again covered with rock dust until all the free 



SITES AND GROUNDS 



oil is absorbed, and then rolled thoroughly until the 
surface is smooth and compact. During the final rolling, 
rock dust should be sprinkled wherever oil is forced to 
the surface by the roller. The total depth when finished 
should be three inches. This pavement at normal times 
should cost about 4! cents per square foot. It is kept 
in repair by oiling, dusting, and rolling the spots showing 
wear. 

All oil should be delivered at the point required for 
sprinkling at a temperature of not less than 250 degrees 
Fahrenheit and should contain not less than 90 per cent 
of asphalt, having, at a temperature of 77 degrees 
Fahrenheit, a penetration of 80, District of Columbia 
Standard. There are other requirements and tests for 
the oil to meet, but the above is sufficient for the purpose 
of describing how to construct these surfaces. 

Asphalt Surfacing on Rock. — This classification is a 
more permanent method of treating school play yards 
and is less expensive to maintain. After the subsurface 
has been graded to the correct levels, a 3" layer of 
crushed rock, ranging in size from f" to i|", should be 
spread. This surface should be carefully covered with 
rock screenings so that the voids are partially filled, but 
not entirely so, and the entire surface thoroughly rolled. 
On top of this an asphalt wearing surface, one inch in 
thickness, should be laid and thoroughly rolled with a 
roller weighing not more than five tons, care being 
exercised at all times to secure a smooth and uniform 
surface. The final depth of this surfacing should be 
four inches. Under normal conditions, this pavement 
costs approximately 14! cents per square foot. 

Asphalt Surfacing on Concrete. — This is by far the 
best wearing surface for tennis and other courts and is 
the most permanent. It differs from asphalt on rock 
only in the substitution of concrete, at least 3" thick, 
for the crushed rock. It costs approximately 18 cents 
a square foot. 

In all surfacing care should be taken to grade the sub- 
surface so that the finished work will be of the required 
thickness and at the same time shed water without form- 
ing gullies. This can be accomplished by installing 
catch basins and drains and sloping the ground to them 
with easy gradients. This will preserve the surfacing, 
avoid hollow spots for puddles, and enable the grounds 
to dry quickly. 

Brick and cement pavements should be used only for 
walks. The former is too dangerous, and soon wears 
out the shoes and tears the clothing of the children, and 
like the latter, having no resilience or " give " to the 
pressure of the feet, is very tiring. When used for walks 
these pavements should be laid flush with the play yard. 

Fencing of Grounds. — The play yard fence is the 
part of the equipment most difficult to justify on paper, 



and yet it is the most essential in practice. In addition 
to the protection of children from the danger of street 
traffic, and the aid it affords in the enforcement of rules 
and regulations, it gives a spirit of individuality to the 
play yard. Inside the playground fence exist a certain 
code of ethics and form of procedure that differ from 
those of the street or vacant lot. This feeling can be 
made strong enough to become an incentive to good 
conduct. Fences might be well covered with climbers, 
and add not only beauty to the grounds, but protect 
girls from the gaze of idle passers-by. When covered 
with vines, they serve well as a low base or screen for 
electric light poles with which to illuminate the play 
yard at night for the use of the grounds by the working 
boys and girls of the community and the older adults. 
The poles, placed along the fence, present a less hideous 
appearance, and fewer are needed within the grounds. 
The better treatment of fencing school grounds is to 
inclose the play yard and rear only, and to leave the 
front of the site and approaches to the building unfenced, 
as such treatment gives a more inviting impression to 
the public and to the student. The result will be that 
the school will operate in closer touch with the com- 
munity. 

Wider Use of School Grounds. — Communities are 
awake to the possibilities of having their school yards 
used at night and on holidays by adults for games under 
skilled supervision. Modern illuminating engineering 
has advanced so that tennis, basket ball, volley ball, and 
indoor baseball may be played outdoors at night as well 
as within aft armory or an inclosed arena. Both the 
school and the grounds are coming into active and inten- 
sive use, and the people are quick to observe the dif- 
ference between well-planned and well-equipped grounds 
and those of the haphazard and indifferently kept school 
play yards that are of little or no use. The character 
of a community is improved by good playgrounds. New 
laws eliminating vicious rendezvous also make it obliga- 
tory that the working boys and girls have every oppor- 
tunity to participate in games on well-kept grounds 
amidst pleasant surroundings. When once completed, 
such grounds cost little to maintain, and the returns to 
good citizenship and good health out-measure all initial 
cost. Many good playgrounds, open wide for inten- 
sive use, will cut down the financial burden in maintain- 
ing jails and hospitals, and the attendance within them. 

Play Yard Accommodations. — In planning the build- 
ing, the school toilet rooms for both sexes should be 
located so as to be accessible to the play space, in order 
to save duplication in the plumbing. However, adults 
should never be permitted to use the children's toilets, 
nor should the children be permitted to use the toilets 
assigned to the older people. Each should have separate 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




TlO^f 



SITES AND GROUNDS 




ilUOADWAY' 



-GUQUP PLAN OF THE OAKLAND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL • OAKLAND -CALIF: 

JOHN J. DOtfOVAN AILCHIT^CT- 
:M1tt; ...f....f..,,f 



I.MTIILE, SITE, CONTAINS ABOUT 14.&& ACLE,S. 

Fig. s. 



U 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



toilet and dressing rooms. The same is true of shower 
rooms. Carelessness in regard to this may lead to a 
serious infection of an innocent child, a thing which can 
be easily avoided. Near the dressing rooms should 
be a small rest room where a first-aid dispensary could be 
stationed to treat injuries occurring on the playgrounds. 
A storeroom about i2'X 20' is essential for the storage of 
supplies and parts of apparatus. These rooms should 
be placed adjacent to the field and so arranged that 
access to them may be had without entering the re- 
mainder of the school building. The school therefore 
will serve as a field house and save the expense and space 
that would be required for an additional building. 

Figure 4 is the actual layout or plan of the Emerson 
School site, Oakland, California, and includes about 
4.3 acres. This playground is supervised by the Munici- 
pal Recreation Department. The following is a de- 
scription of the apparatus indicated by the numbers 
and letters on the diagram : 

1. Girls' Sandbox. The dimensions of this are 
1 X 5X1 2 feet. It is equipped with a shelf around the 
top, which serves either as a seat or a molding table. 
It is filled with a coarse grade of sand, which will not 
become dusty in dry weather or muddy when moistened. 



2. Girls' Slide. This is a medium-sized slide, 
equipped with a landing-pit filled with clean sand. 

3. Girls' Gymnasium Frame, which consists of a 
set of six traveling rings. This particular unit has been 
found most satisfactory for girls. 

4. Girls' Volley-Ball Court, which has 4X4 inch 
posts set in sockets, so that they may be easily removed. 

5. Girls' Basket-Bail Court, — posts set in sockets. 
(Numbers 4 and 5 are convertible into tennis courts 
during seasons when basket ball is not played.) 

6. Double Handball Courts, one side for girls, and 
the other for boys. This consists of plain handball 
backstops, twenty feet wide, twelve feet high, with a 
six-foot wire extension. 

7. Boys' Basket-Ball Court — posts set in sockets. 

8. Boys' Volley-Ball Court — posts set in sockets. 
(Numbers 7 and 8 are convertible into tennis courts.) 

9. Boys' Gymnasium Frame. Unit selected for 
boys' gymnasium frame is one horizontal bar, one climb- 
ing-pole, one climbing-ladder, two sets of flying rings. 

10. High Slide for Boys, equipped with landing-pit 
filled with sand. 

11. Soccer Posts, made of 6X6 inch posts. Size of 
field is reduced to 50X80 yards, which has proved satis- 












•"PROPOSED" 7 N EW 7 hFgH : SC^ 



SITES AND GROUNDS 




Fig. 7. — Athletic Field, New Trier 1 
factory for school playground purposes. Hockey is 
played on this field. 

12. Sandbox for Boys, equipped as number 1. 

13. Jumping-pit, filled with shavings. 

14. Wire Cage Backstop for baseball. 

15. Open Pergola Porch, covered with canvas in the 
summer time, which affords a place for small children 
to hold club meetings and enjoy diversified play. 



Area marked X is an oil macadam composition. It 
makes an excellent surface for court games. 

Surface marked Y is covered with crushed-rock dust. 
It makes a good baseball field, but is a little too hard 
for football, — sandy loam would be better. 

Figure 5 shows the group plan of the Technical High 
School, Oakland, California. This plot includes 14.85 
acres. 




L<iiicl.-:r:!/>e\4.rchitects. 



i6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. g. — Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 





Fig. io. — Field House, Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 



Messrs. Olmsted Bros., Landscipe Archi/rc:s 



SITES AND GROUNDS 




Fig. ii b. — Crocker Field, Fitchburg Massachusetts. 



CHAPTER II 
ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A. LA. 

The Motive of American School Architecture. Formation of the Plan. Correlation of Departments. Planning the School of 
the Future. The Exterior Composition. Standardization. Legislation. Construction. Materials. Inspection. The Architect 
and His Service. 



Motive of American School Architecture. — There 
is nothing more impressive or hopeful in American 
democracy than the devotion of the people to education. 
Nor is this devotion confined to those who have enjoyed 
its enrichments. Even in the humblest homes un- 
lettered parents will be found to have a fixed desire for 
the educational welfare of their children. Sacrifices in 
personal comforts of all but the means of mere existence 
are made in order that the family may have the opportu- 
nity of receiving not simply the fundamentals of learning, 
but the training of the university as well. And the 
devotion of the wealthy is no less impressive. For the 
great progress of, education is due in large measure to 
the interest in education shown by men and women of 
affluence. Universities, colleges, academies, and often 
the public schools could not have fulfilled the educa- 
tional wants of the nation, had it not been for the many 
magnificent endowments, for the promotion of learn- 
ing and the development of character, placed at the dis- 
posal of education by these public-spirited people. 

Education is the common meeting-ground for all 
classes, creeds, and races, where the small bothersome 
misunderstandings of life vanish ; and nowhere is this 
more evident than in American school life. The greatest 
tribute of justice that can be paid to the nation is that 
its laws first demand that its youth shall receive the 
fundamentals of education, and then it presents the 
widest opportunities for its humblest citizen and resident 
to proceed in acquiring unlimited learning. 

With such a foundation, it is no wonder that the 
architecture of American schools and institutions of 
learning has advanced more rapidly than that of any 
other field of the profession. Unconsciously the spirit 
has been to represent truly this national devotion to 
education in the architecture of public schools. If 
progress in education is observed from the time when 
it was dispensed within the small box-like building, with 
its poorly lighted and badly ventilated rooms, to its 



present expanded and still expanding status, as carried 
on within the modern complex structure completely 
equipped and embracing all facilities for education, 
health, and safety, it will be seen that architecture has 
kept abreast with each succeeding step of the educational 
program, in which the course of studies has become 
more and more extended to meet the requirements of 
the industrial, commercial, and social life of the nation. 

Notwithstanding this expansion of the curriculum and 
the consequent complexity of the building and equip- 
ment, it is gratifying to note that the architecture of 
the school has remained simple and direct. This is truly 
a hopeful sign. For as the nation advances in its devel- 
opment and maintains its virility, the demands for edu- 
cation will always outstrip the supply. And the burden 
of taxation so willingly borne as a responsibility to 
posterity and good citizenship is that much lightened 
when the merit of the architecture is based on good 
planning, beauty of form, and dignity of proportion. 
Ornamental embellishments serve no purpose. They 
do not represent the character of the school or of the 
people, and happily their use is rare in American school 
architecture. Just how much credit for this is due to 
the influence of the work of Wheelwright, Ittner, Snyder, 
Perkins, Hussander, Guilbert, Betelle, Packard, and to 
the innumerable unheard-of men who have contributed 
isolated examples, and to the influence of the broad- 
minded, alert, and discerning leaders of education, is 
difficult to measure at this time. But it is recorded 
in their examples of school architecture that these men, 
by their serious study of the problem and their good 
sense for simplicity in composition, have led the way 
in school architecture toward possibilities which have, 
clearly exemplified the people's devotion to education 
and their appreciation for simple, substantial structures. 

Formation of the Plan. — The proper understanding 
of the school problem might be said to have passed its 
first stages. While what has been accomplished in the 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




FiG. 13. — Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, Front View, St. Louis, Missouri. 



last two decades has been remarkable, it will be greatly 
surpassed in the future. With a comprehensive knowl- 
edge of the pedagogical organization being more gen- 
erally acquired by the architectural profession, the 
prospect is bright for good planning of school buildings. 
There is an axiom in the science of building that a good 
plan should produce a good exterior. This, of course, 
is subject to the limitations of training, skill, taste, and 
competence of .the architect. But it is none the less true 
that the plan must be of primary importance. The 
correlation of rooms within each department and the 
correlation of departments within the school is all-im- 
portant if the school is to permit of being well adminis- 
tered. In factory planning, the essential factor is the 
routing of material along the most direct and economical 
channels. In school planning, the routing of the human 
material is the essential. Rooms which can serve more 
than one purpose should be planned to do so. For it is 
by such practices of economical planning rather than by 
the use of cheap materials that real economy can be 
accomplished. 

Within the last decade there has been a strong tendency 
to link the school and the community together by pro- 
viding separate rooms for community purposes, such 



as clubrooms, small libraries, etc. This movement is 
accomplishing its purpose, for out of it is growing a valu- 
able connection, namely, the continuation school. The 
close relation between the school and the community 
must be fostered if education is to prosper ; but instead 
of devoting valuable space in the building for occasional 
use, rooms such as the teachers' rest room, the library, 
the assembly hall, or the music room should be the meet- 
ing places of the community clubs. 

Every facility should be made for educational work, 
and every dollar spent should have its worth expressed 
in the educational, hygienic, and structural features of 
the building. When it is considered that even with the 
strictest economy in planning only fifty per cent of the 
total floor area can be used for instruction while the 
other fifty per cent is used for corridors, stairways, 
entrances, and rooms and areas related to instruction 
rooms, it is evident that judgment must be exercised 
in giving up space for other than that for direct instruc- 
tion. This, however, should not prejudice the reader 
against such rooms as assembly halls, swimming-pools, 
playrooms, etc., for these are just as essential to the 
development of the child and the community as the 
classrooms themselves. The school of the future will 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



not be complete without them ; but their location with 
relation to each other should be planned to avoid dupli- 
cation of equipment and plant. For instance, the 
toilets, showers,, dressing-rooms, etc., for the play-yard 
activities should also serve for the swimming-pool, the 
gymnasium, and the indoor playrooms. The dressing- 
rooms for the assembly-hall stage should be planned 
for use by the music department for private instrumental 
instruction. In fact, all the rooms throughout the school 
should be considered as having possibilities for extended 
use into school activities beyond their primary purpose. 

The plant and equipment 
of the day school must be 
fitted and adapted to the 
work of the continuation 
school, so that rotation of 
students may be accom- 
plished without friction or 
waste of time or energy. In 
many cities the continua- 
tion school periods begin 
at i : oo p.m. and extend 
to 10:00 p.m. It is not 
unlikely that the hours of 
work for this branch of 
school education may ex- 
tend from 7 : 30 a.m. to 
10 : co p.m. Students en- 
rolled in the continuation 
school enter and leave the 
building at all hours, con- 
sequently, the plant should 
be as flexible as the or- 
ganization in meeting the 
requirements. 

Correlation of Depart- 
ments. — The various de- 
partments of the school are 
treated in separate chap- 
ters because of the im- 
portance of having correct and definite data embracing 
their organization, planning, and equipment. Their 
correlation only will be discussed here. 

It will be found advantageous if the commercial de- 
partment is placed near the administration offices, as 
they have much in common. The shops should be 
isolated from the study and recitation rooms, on account 
of the noises attendant to their operation. The drawing 
department should be near the shops, as all advanced 
shop work should be performed from working drawings. 
If these two departments are adjacent, convenience will 
result. Possibilities for wide expansion should always 
be made feasible in planning for shops. The household 




arts and the science departments should also be near 
each other; particularly should the chemistry labora- 
tories be available for use by the students in cooking, 
The chemistry of foods is a part of the curriculum of 
household arts in modern high schools. The academic 
department and the library are almost a unity, and 
wherever located, possibilities for expansion and easy 
growth should be considered from every angle. For, as 
enrollment increases, this department is the first to feel 
congestion. Locating the assembly hall, the gymnasium, 
the swimming-pool, the showers, and the play-yard 
accommodations should 
have reference to free ac- 
cessibility by the public. 
These divisions of the school 
plant should be arranged so 
that if found desirable or 
necessary, the remainder of 
the school may be closed 
off. As a general rule, the 
heating plant should be 
closely connected with the 
shops and 'apart from the 
main building. This will 
serve a double purpose in 
providing certain instruc- 
tion to the student in me- 
chanical installations and 
at the same time increase 
the safety of the building 
and its occupants. 

Planning the School of 
the Future. — The school 
of the future, having the 
last decade of progress in 
education for its founda- 
tion, will have to be pro- 
portionate in plant and 
equipment to meet the 
needs of each community 
for the great post-war period of education. The 
physical and scientific requirements of the World War 
(1914-1918) have precipitated a feeling for an intense 
and constructive movement for greater diffusion of edu- 
cational training in the professional, social, industrial, 
and commercial fields of endeavor. Business, industry, 
agriculture, and the other arts of life are no longer inde- 
pendent of the school. Nor is the school an isolated 
institution, occupying a definitely limited period in the 
life of the individual. That belief now lies in the back- 
ground of the history of both education and industry. 
Research and applied science have received an impetus 
never before experienced or equaled, an impetus which 



- Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, St. Louis, 
Missouri. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



gives to these two important branches of education a 
higher standing of importance. 

It is also through the school that the more complete 
nationalizing of the immigrant and his children will be 
brought about. This movement is well under way at 
the present time, having received its impulse from the 
spirit of patriotism for America so magnificentl yexem- 
plified by the foreign-born citizens during the war. A 
tremendous effort towards national homogeneity and 
common interest is bound to result from it. This will 
directly benefit education and the state. Readjustment 



rooms used for the study of English and literature- 
Attempts, sometimes partly successful, have been made 
to give these rooms a character of early English Tudor 
architecture. These sporadic efforts have had their 
limitations and difficulties on account of the fenestration 
necessitated by the modern requirements for good natural 
lighting. Except for the development of the library 
and the arrangement of the dividing partitions so that 
floor areas of rooms may be easily altered to expedite 
flexibility in administration, this department of the school 
plant is likely to be subject to very few modifications 




of the school plan necessarily will follow. Just where 
and how is problematical for the moment, but most 
likely the greatest development will take place in the 
household, industrial, and commercial departments of 
the school plant. 

The academic department, which teaches the studies 
of mathematics, languages, English, history, civics, and 
geography, — the subjects of culture and the foundation 
for all other forms of education, — has stood the test of 
time without much change in the physical requirements 
of its rooms beyond enlargements of area and improve- 
ment of the hygienic conditions. However, certain 
refinements have already taken place in the design of 



other than providing sufficient well-lighted, healthful 
rooms for study and recitation. 

The departments teaching the sciences, industrial 
arts, drawing, household arts, and commercial studies 
are most subject to change in their curricula, plant, and 
equipment. And to meet the changes, it is necessary for 
the school to draw from the ranks of industry, able leaders 
to assist in the planning and instruction. No longer will 
it do tc assign vacant rooms and simply designate them 
as shops or laboratories. Each room, before the draw- 
ings have passed beyond the preliminary stages, must 
have its equipment carefully shown, properly located, 
and tested in the abstract for efficiency and adequacy. 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



23 



Attention should be called to what all this means in 
the planning and architecture of the school of the future. 
Undoubtedly, the high school will take on the aspect 
and character of the university, and function for the 
community as the university now functions for the state. 
Instead of many small and distinctly exclusive high 
schools, such as the classical, the commercial, the techni- 
cal, the vocational, etc., etc., the people and their rep- 
resentatives, boards of education, will see the light of 
wisdom and group all these separate schools under one, 
two, or three plants, according to the size of the district 



This requires a thorough knowledge of the school and a 
vision of the future. The greatest waste is to build so 
that additions cannot be made and that plants must as 
a result be abandoned after thirty or forty years of use. 
Bond issues extend to almost that time, and it is un- 
fortunate if the plant has to be discarded shortly after 
payment of the last installment. 

The problems surrounding the planning and archi- 
tecture of the elementary and intermediate, or junior 
high school, are no less important than those of the 
inclusive high school, although not so complex or numer- 




or city. This will make for economy in cost of manage- 
ment, housing, and maintenance, and will broaden the 
scope of the educational staff. Likewise, it will prove 
attractive to able men and women engaged in teaching 
to strive for greater leadership and high social standing 
in the community. In the long run, it will be found less 
expensive and more advantageous to have one large 
plant rather than several small ones. In well-developed 
cities the high school, costing as much as a million and a 
half dollars and even more, will in the very near future 
be not uncommon. Valuable service will be rendered 
if all school plants are planned for unrestricted growth. 



ous. But it is in the serious thought and study of 
these two plants that rests the hope of the nation. 
Indifference to the planning, sanitation, heating, and 
ventilation for these fundamental education buildings 
has given way to the purpose of having them adequately 
designed to meet their needs. It is expected they will 
be charmingly simple in their architecture and inviting 
in their appearance and surroundings. Just as their 
curricula are the foundations for higher education, so, 
too, is their architecture the foundation for greater 
development of American school architecture. Of late, 
in certain sections of the country, there has been a tend- 



24 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



ency to develop a compact, fixed plan which has been 
influenced by desires for economy. Desirable orienta- 
tion and natural ventilation of rooms and corridors have 
necessarily been sacrificed in many instances in favor of 
compactness. Children of the age attending these 
schools require the most favorable hygienic conditions 
in order that their physical assets may be conserved 
to the fullest degree. 



The Exterior Composition. — However good the plan 
of a school may be, or whatever the excellence of its 
capability for administration and instruction, unless 
it is accompanied by a pleasing composition of the 
exterior, it will soon lose its prestige and be forgotten. 
One of the important functions of school architecture 
is to sell education to the public. This is accomplished 
by making attractive that side of education which the 



C/.4J3 X.OOM 



I^U 



HT 



CLASS R.OOM 



Cl/133 ZLOO/H 




■ /SECOND FLOOR. PLAN" 



BRYAN MULLANPHY SCHOOL 

(ST.LOUI/S, .M.O.- 



The writer is of the opinion that the open type of plan 
of the one-, two-, or three-story buildings is most condu- 
cive to good health, and that economies of space obtained 
in the compact scheme may be offset in the cost of con- 
struction of the open type. Certainly more sunshine 
is possible with the latter type of plan. But rather 
than prejudice the minds of those responsible for the 
erection of schools, it should be clearly understood that 
each problem is distinct and separate in itself ; and its 
plan and construction should be based on the conditions 
governing its study. 



public see most. So much has been written and said 
about the educational value of good architecture to the 
community, that it is needless to repeat here what has 
been so thoroughly propagated to influence civic interest 
for good public buildings. But appropriately something 
may be mentioned about the educational value to chil- 
dren and students of housing them in buildings having 
merit in form, proportion, and good taste both without 
and within. 

Much effort is made within the school to teach chil- 
dren to draw accurately and freely, to paint with oils 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 




Fig. 18. — Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, Californ 




Fig. 19. — Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, Californ: 



26 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



and water-colors, to comprehend proportion of areas 
and figures, to understand the history of art and civiliza- 
tion, and to master other subjects which lead to the 
realms of art. The motive prompting this work is not 
that a livelihood will be made from such brief training, 
but that the child will be trained to have a sense of appre- 
ciation for the beautiful which he may express in other 
forms of life's activities. Therefore, is not this appre- 
ciation greatly enhanced and fostered if the building 
and its appointments are executed so that the mind, at 



forced to work in mills and factories at an early age and 
by children having to attend schools whose architecture 
paralleled that of the jail or the factory. How often 
has the boy of sound mind wished dire happenings to 
the school, which meant nothing more to him than a 
place of confinement and restriction ! Much of this ill- 
will is traceable to the forbidding impression of the 
school building, with its uninviting exterior and its 
dark and poorly ventilated corridors and rooms. Hap- 
pily the renaissance in school architecture which has 




its impressionistic age, may have good examples con- 
stantly before it? Set a child to draw a picture of a 
house, and immediately he will attempt to reproduce his 
impression of his own home, showing that he has been 
influenced entirely by his environment. 

Prisons and jails are built to express severity and con- 
finement. To see nothing else but their heavy, crude 
walls and buildings is a punishment almost equal to the 
restrictions of freedom within them ; and the mental 
depression caused by the severity of their architecture 
has its own discouraging influence. A similar influence 
has been felt by the child whom circumstances has 



taken place during the last ten years has modified 
this feeling of the child towards the school. The pro- 
vision of better facilities for play has had much to do in 
changing the child's attitude ; but the charm of simple, 
pleasing architectural forms, together with grounds 
graced with appropriate foliage and lawns, has had its 
influential effect upon the adult as well as upon the 
pupil. 

The efforts of those interested in child welfare and in 
the future of the nation are directed towards extending 
and prolonging the period of early education. If this 
movement is to be successful and profitable to the state, 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 




it must meet with the fullest cooperation on the part 
of the child, whose voluntary attendance is worth more 
than his coming through fear of the law. And to enlist 
this cooperation, it is fundamental that the school in 
its appearance shall be attractive to the child. 

This can be brought about in no better way than by 
erecting simple, pleasing architectural buildings at the 
very beginning for the elementary schools. Here the 
small child receives his first impression of the school and 
the world, an impression not subject to early change, 
as he is likely to attend the same school for a number 
of years. Consequently, the child should be the motive 
for the architecture of this grade of school buildings, 
and not some time-honored example of a great period 
of development in architecture. The composition 
should reflect the spirit, quietness, and refinement of a 
good home. A transition takes place in his life as soon 
as the child first attends school, and that transition 
should be accompanied with delightful discoveries of 
new forms and environments pleasing to the senses. 
Until recently there has been too much effort to show 
how much architecture could be put into even the 
simplest of problems. Meaningless domes, bombastic 
use of the orders, wonderful creations of the monumental 
misapplied to the unpretentious, have had their day in 
the development of American school architecture, and 
it is to be hoped they are never to return. 

The word " classical," with all its magic, will not 
influence the intelligent layman to connect modern 



school design with that meaningless phrase as applied to 
architecture. It is effeminate to talk of styles of archi- 
tecture, and slavish to force their forms into a well- 
organized plan. Each problem should have an archi- 
tecture or composition of its own in keeping with the 
plan, the locality, the materials accessible, and the many 
other factors influential in its study. If the school is 
first viewed as a technical problem and solved in plan 
from this standpoint, then, with the use of good materials 
and simplicity as the main motive, there will be no ques- 
tion about the successful progress of school architecture. 
What has been said about the architecture of the ele- 
mentary school is equally applicable to the architecture 
of the high school. Here, however, the child has ad- 
vanced to and beyond the adolescent age when its mind 
is most confident and critical. And as the impressions 
of the elementary school should be influential to attract 
the child to school life, so too should the high school 
exert influence to impress upon the student the value 
of dignity, proportion, and good taste. As the child 
should be the motive for the architecture of the earlier 
school, likewise the student should be the motive for the 
architecture of the advanced school. The high school 
is the last seat of learning to be attended by the greater 
number of students enrolled within it, and, if for no other 
reason, it should present them with visions of accom- 
plishments in life. Pride in country and in citizenship 
is dependent on the creative power of the people as well 
as upon the laws guaranteeing liberty and social possi- 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




-. Messrs. John J. Donovan anil John Galen h 

-Emerson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



bilities. The high-school student is quick to perceive 
the merits of this creative ability. Therefore, if our 
schools are to fulfill their functions, their outward appear- 
ance should have the character, repose, and presenta- 
tion befitting the important work going forward within. 
Standardization. — In the chapter on elementary- 
schools, it has been pointed out that standardization is 
likely to lead to stagnation. This is quite true unless 
standardization is applied only to the details of con- 
struction, which may be standardized without restrict- 
ing the general development of the administration and 
instruction within the school. Educational methods 
are rapidly changing, and will change just as long as 
progress is made. When they cease to change, stagna- 
tion and then decadence follow. Consequently, the 
building should be constructed to permit the greatest 
flexibility in arrangement of rooms, even after the build- 
ing is completed, so that the construction will always be 
adaptable for modification to the school organization. 
In a recent report to the New York City Board of Edu- 
cation, on Public School No. 29, Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, 
Architect, pointed out many means and ways towards 
standardization of the architectural details within the 
building, for instance that the ventilating ducts enter 
the classrooms from the ceilings of the corridors, so that 



dividing partitions may be changed at will. He also 
prepared the specifications so that different systems of 
construction and materials, equally good, may be 
optional with the contractors. 

Such standardization is commendable, but whenever 
standardization takes the form of limiting freedom in 
design and composition, or the endeavor to make the 
community fit the school instead of vice versa, then stand- 
ardization is nothing short of a prolonged menace. If 
the aesthetic and educational value of a well-designed 
exterior is to be disregarded and schools are to be erected 
like so many factory buildings, then standardization 
some day is bound to reflect on its followers. Or if plans 
are to be standardized, and fixed forms erected repeatedly, 
then progress in school planning will cease. However, 
duplication of types at a particular period, and for the 
same grades of schools operating under similar condi- 
tions in the same community, is not at all unfavorable 
to the progress of school architecture. Such standardi- 
zation should be handled skillfully and only after the 
original types have been carefully studied, for there is 
likely to be duplication of errors as well as of good fea- 
tures. Just how a community would appreciate ten or 
fifteen schools of the same general plan, and with practi- 
cally the same exterior appearance, is problematical to 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



29 



the writer. A final word may not be amiss on the subject 
of standardization relative to its adoption when applied 
to buildings as a whole ; the orientation, the topography, 
the size of the different sites, the enrollments, and the 
social character of the neighborhoods, are matters which 
should determine the feasibility and the wisdom of 
duplication of types of school buildings. 

Legislation. — The time has arrived when there 
should be some uniformity in the school-building codes 
of all the states of the Union. That this may be accom- 
plished, a Federal commission should be created which 
would carefully study, first the problems of safety and 
health, and then the details of efficiency and economy 
in the erection of school buildings. Reports by this 
commission could be adopted or modified to suit local 
conditions, by similar commissions or bureaus created by 



Empowered to pass on all plans and specifications, and 
free to make recommendations, bureaus of the character 
suggested would do much towards conserving health and 
wealth and preventing the erection of poor buildings 
which could never be erected under proper regulation. 
It is far more wasteful to plan and build wrongly than 
it is to plan correctly with too large a factor of safety, 
although there is no excuse why both extremes should 
not be obviated. The trend of the times is to expand 
along broad constructive lines and to conserve in all 
fields of resource in order that the expansion may be all 
the more effective. 

Possibilities for expansion in education are infinite, 
and the entire nation is eager to cooperate and take part, 
but unless it is intelligently and wisely directed and 
founded on the purpose to conserve human and material 




each state. If such bureaus were permanent, with the 
proper authority to enforce the laws governing safety 
requirements and health regulations, and if they were 
equipped with a trained personnel cooperating with the 
educators of the state and nation, a great and sound 
progress in school building would ensue. Just prior to 
the United States' entering the war, the nation was 
spending more than one hundred and twenty-five 
millions of dollars annually for the building of public 
schools. Of this vast sum a very large percentage was 
spent for buildings erected in states having few, if any, 
regulations covering the subject ; and some of it was 
spent in states having codes which are rightfully con- 
sidered drastically precautionary. On the one hand, 
haphazard planning has followed, while on the other, 
an unnecessarily wasteful expenditure of resources has 
been the result, without any particular advantage being 
gained. 



resources, unfavorable ■ reactions will unquestionably 
follow. 

Construction. — Under this heading it is not advisable 
to attempt more than a few general statements regarding 
the use of good materials, the necessity for proper inspec- 
tion of the construction, the selection of the architect 
and his responsibility. In the chapter on the " Cost of 
School Buildings " the different grades of construction 
are classified, as it was found necessary to define clearly 
these classifications, since the cost of buildings is closely 
related to the different types of construction. 

Materials. — The distinction between economy and 
cheapness, as applied to buildings, warrants a clear 
definition. Economy in building means the avoidance 
of waste in' the design of the construction ; the selection 
of materials which will withstand the ravages of time 
and appropriately express the architectural design 
worthy of the citizenship it represents ; and the 



3Q 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




OAK PARK .SCHOOL 



Fig. 24. — Oak Park Elementary School. 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



3i 



employment of the highest grade of workmanship, fabri- 
cating the materials so that after the building is completed 
the minimum of maintenance charges will follow. On 
the other hand, cheapness in building implies the use 
of materials and workmanship of little value, and means 
that, for the time being, the building will have only the 
appearance of substantiality. Cheapness also means 
low cost of construction and high cost of maintenance. 
Cheaply constructed buildings are perpetual liabilities, 
and after a short time are worse than worthless because 
of the cost of maintenance. 

The " catch-penny " phrase of building inexpensively 
means nothing more than the substitution of cheap, 
temporary materials for those of permanency and 
character. Unfortunately, attempts are made to be- 
guile the layman into believing that long experience 
in the trade of handling cheap materials and erecting 



mended to the board for employment or dismissal by the 
architect, as the latter can then be responsible for the 
proper conduct of the work. The expense of such in- 
spection is justified in every instance and is an obligation 
on the part of the board as a protection to the city or 
district. Very often, to drive a good bargain with the 
architect, boards of education will attempt to impose 
this expense upon him. Invariably the result is the em- 
ployment of an inexperienced man who is willing to serve 
for a compensation far below the value of the services to 
be rendered, and in consequence the board, the architect, 
and the contractors are all involved in disputes and mis- 
understandings. There is no other expenditure con- 
nected with the construction of the building more im- 
portant than that allowed for the proper and constant 
supervision of the work as it progresses. A competent 
man will not only see that the work is executed according 




temporary commercial buildings has brought about an 
adeptness akin to cleverness in the use of cheap materials. 
But it is a known fact that workmen will not take the 
same interest in their work when using cheap materials 
as when applying good. The same is true of the public's 
appreciation of the school buildings erected by public 
funds. Nothing can be more harmful to the success of 
education than that people should feel general distrust 
and dissatisfaction in the character and quality of 
the construction of school plants. Furthermore, there 
is a nobility of character and a sense of security in the 
use of permanent materials which temporary or cheap 
materials cannot express. 

Inspection. — Every school building costing more than 
$20,000 should have a competent building inspector 
appointed either by the architect or the board of educa- 
tion, and his salary should be paid directly by the board. 
He should represent both the board of education and 
the architect, and it is generally better if he is recom- 



to the plans and specifications, thereby guaranteeing 
full value of materials and workmanship, but he will 
anticipate errors and wastes and often save the board 
many times the amount of his salary. 

The reliable American contractor is about as fine a citi- 
zen as any with whom the nation can be blessed. The 
opposite is true of the unreliable, and inasmuch as public 
work is generally subject to the freest competition, the 
successful bidders are unfortunately not always the most 
reliable. An unscrupulous contractor can easily cause a 
loss of more than several times the cost of competent in- 
spection. After more than twenty-two years of experience 
in building operations, the writer is convinced that it 
would be far better to have the funds plundered directly 
to any extent, than to have the building cheated to the 
same amount in the quality or quantity of the materials. 
In the former case there is every opportunity for just 
retribution to reach the embezzler, but in the latter the 
safety of the occupants is involved. In both instances, 



32 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 26. —Lafayette School, Newark, N. J. 
Elevation 



the community is the loser. This may be avoided by 
safeguarding the conditions leading up to the wrong- 
doing. Briefly, a few points to observe in building 
inspection are as follows : 

Excavation. — See that the proper levels and grades 
are maintained. All top soil should be placed convenient 
for rehandling. Trees for future use should be protected. 

Concrete Work. — Each batch of concrete should be 
accurately measured and properly placed, tamped, and 
protected. All reenforcement should be bent correctly 
and rightly placed. If the structure is economically 
designed, the sizes and locations of the steel rods and 
mesh should be carefully inspected in every column, 
girder, beam, slab, and wall. The safety of the occu- 
pants is dependent upon the inspection as well as the 
design. All finished concrete and cement work should 
be kept in a moistened condition for a period of two 
weeks, except during freezing weather. 

Steel. — All work should be plumbed after erection, 
and all connections riveted tightly. Loose rivets should 
be rejected, and bolted work should be avoided as far 
as possible. Unless the steel is inclosed in concrete 



it should receive two good coats of paint : (a) a shop coat, 
and. (b) a field coat, of contrasting color applied after 
all riveting and other steel work is completed. 

Masonry. — All brick joints should be solidly filled 
with mortar properly gauged and the bricks should be in 
a partly saturated condition when laid. 

Carpentry. — Inspection of this branch requires a 
wide experience. Selection of the lumber is important. 
Following up the nailing, placing of the grounds for the 
finish, judging the quality and character of the finish, 
inspection of the workmanship of the latter, the laying 
of the floors, and the checking of multitudinous details 
is a responsibility that can be executed only by a 
thoroughly competent man. 

Plastering. — First of all, the lathing should be closely 
inspected. Then the mixture and application of the 
mortar is very important if the finished building is to be 
creditable to all concerned in the project. All exposed 
corners should have galvanized metal corner beads, and 
all angles and wall surfaces should be plumb and true. 
The thickness and finish of the mortar and number of 
coats should be clearly specified and carefully checked. 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



33 



Painting. — The material should be checked as it 
arrives on the job, and adulteration should never be 
permitted. Large quantities of gasoline or naphtha on 
the premises are a sure sign of danger ahead. Each 
coat should be identified by some mark, and all rubbing 
of surfaces should be constantly followed. 

Hardware. — Only standard makes should be specified, 
as special hardware and renewals are unnecessarily 
expensive. However, it should be of good quality, 
as it is subject to much 



r — 



! 



, 



usage. Brass or bronze 
should be the metals 
used for all exposed 
exterior work. Very 
often sherardized steel, 
brass plated, makes a 
good substitute for in- 
terior hardware finish. 
If brass or bronze is 
specified, a steel mag- 
net is a good aid to 
inspection of the make 
of the material. 

Glass. — The thick- 
ness and quality of the 
glass are the principal 
points to follow in this 
branch. Only the bet- 
ter grades should be 
used below a height of 
eight feet. Above that, 
it is permissible to allow 
the use of the less per- 
fect material. 

Blackboards are fully 
covered in the chapter 
on " Classrooms," and 
heating, ventilation, 
plumbing, and electri- 
cal work, are also 

treated in separate 

, i r iViam 

chapters, because of 

the importance of the engineering required for these 

branches of the special work. 

.The above notations are only a few of the many 
factors involved in the erection of a school building, and 
are submitted for the benefit of the school superintendent, 
who may be called upon at times to assume the responsi- 
bility of acting as the board's representative on the work. 

The Architect and His Service. — Selecting the 
architect is very often made a difficult task, although 
it should be a very simple matter. To be sure, the 
authority of choosing is accompanied with its sense of 



k 



Fig. : 



responsibility, but if any member of a board of educa- 
tion had a legal case at hand, he would not hesitate very 
long in choosing an attorney skilled in conducting cases 
similar to his own. Furthermore, if a member of his 
family required the attention of a physician it would 
not require much deliberation to select a man in whom 
he had the utmost confidence. Boards of education are 
applying these same principles in selecting their architects. 
The architect of experience and standing in this field 
of the profession is 
aware of the futility of 
'\ entering competitions, 

and unless the office is 
equipped for such com- 
petitive work, and 
makes a practice of en- 
k. tering competitions of 

every nature, it is found 
to be an expensive gam- 
ble. An occasional 
competition, however, 
is often a good tonic 
for any office, as it dis- 
closes the cobwebs and 
raises the standards of 
what might be termed 
s academic design. How- 
9 ever, every competition 
J requires a carefully 
I prepared program, re- 
I suiting from the study 
1 of the problem by an 
IPPsii architect acting as ad- 
viser, — one who under- 
H stands the school and 
J its functions, and can 
"" >! *^ clearly state the re- 
* quirements and -give 
I the proper correlation 
Mt, Aicnittcis. f rooms and depart- 
ments. Then it is ab- 
solutely necessary that 
the judges be men of recognized, unquestionable standing 
in the profession, and chosen for this purpose by ballot 
cast by the competitors. Furthermore, no competition 
requiring the submission of drawings should be held 
until its program and conduct has received the approval 
of the local chapter of the American Institute of Archi- 
tects. The writer is fully aware that this is often 
contrary to the wishes of the average board of edu- 
cation favorable to competitions. Nevertheless, and 
with every regard for the integrity and honesty of the 
members of such boards, it is impossible to conduct 



Lafayette School, Newark 
Main Entrance 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Messrs. Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton. Architects. 

- Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, Illinois. 



an honest and fair competition otherwise. Moreover, 
architects capable of rendering the required service will 
not enter competitions conducted on any other lines, as 
experience has demonstrated that they result in nothing 
but dissatisfaction and unsatisfactory service. Boards 
of education, too, have found that competitions are un- 
profitable, and realize that the problem requires special 
study, which can be more satisfactorily followed if they 
and their representatives cooperate with the architect 
from the very beginning of the undertaking. 

The practice of architecture is a business as well as a 
profession. It requires a thorough knowledge of the 
different building crafts, and a capability to execute the 
financial expenditures of the client to such a degree of 
precision that wastes and losses are avoided. It first 
involves a training in the theory of architectural design 
and engineering, and then an extended experience in the 
practice of building management and the application of 
sound business principles. From this, it is evident that 
in the selection of an architect the board should choose 
the man whose work pleases or satisfies them and in 
whom they can repose confidence. 

The building costs one hundred per cent of the con- 
tract price. The architect's fee is six per cent of that 
cost, which is less than one-sixteenth of the total cost 
of the building. If proper value is rendered in service, 
it is not possible to measure it either by figures or terms. 
For the value continues indefinitely. Conversely, im- 
proper service bears with it a just retribution in the loss 
of confidence and repute, unescapable and as unending 
as the life of the man or the building. There should 



be no division of the architect's responsibilities. Not 
only should he be responsible for the execution of the 
drawings and specifications of which he is the author, 
but in order to protect the interests of his client to the 
fullest extent of his capability, he should have undivided 
authority as to the conduct of the work. Division of 
responsibility follows division of authority, which opens 
the way for irregularities and inferior values in the per- 
formance of work. In return for the board's confidence, 
the architect should take every measure to solve the prob- 
lem in the interest of the client and for the successful 
advancement of education. This means rendering the 
best available engineering service as well as competent 
architectural service. 

The trend of the times indicates a mutually happy, 
confidential relation between the educational and 
architectural professions, and between the latter and 
boards of education who represent the public at 
large. Occasionally, paltry politics or misguided per- " 
sonal friendships on the part of those advisory to boards 
of education in building programs will counteract pro- 
gression in the development of the problem and halt 
solution of the many intricacies which go to make up the 
whole. It requires years of practice and association 
for the architect to anticipate the pedagogical require- 
ments and correlate them with the physical or archi- 
tectural possibilities so that the building squares with 
the organization of the school and vice versa. The 
best evidence of this correlation is shown in the splendid 
character of most of the modern American school archi- 
tecture. 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



35 




FLOOR PLAN 



5KOKIE PU5LIC SCHOOL 5UILDIMG - 
•WINNE.TKA- -ILLINOIS • 



36 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 30. — Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, Illinois. 




p^f^EEa Alexander Graham Bell Public School f^™wi 

ESaa^j' ■ > }Ji!Lul QaKLIyAv, GnACljT. Ai«\^vVELAND Av.---CHICACO,lLLINOIi. EhhJ^^WibliH 

L"J Boabd of Education. A.EHujsander. Architect. I 1 



@'i 



J 



Eiy y 



in hi 




ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 




... i. Architects. 

Fig. 36 a. Santa Monica High School, Elliot Memorial Entrance Gate. From Fremont Avenue on South Side of Grounds, 
. Los Angeles. 



B I 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

Fig. 39. — Oakland Technical High S:hool, Oakland, California 








Fig. 40. — First Floor Plan — Oakland Technical Hich School, Oakland, California 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



45 



IMBttbdfcM 







Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornbostel, Consulting 

Fig. 42. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



46 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




— .—^.,. 




Mr. John J Donovan, Architect. Mr. Henry Hornbostel, 

Fig. 44. — Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




5o 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




56 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




£>&& LVl L.N.T! aoOLPLAK 



RIGR.^CHOOI, WASHINGTON J>.C ■ 



ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



57 




C 1LO U N £) I 1 CO OtU PLAK 



HIGH jSCHOOI, WA5HINGlON-J)-6 



58 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 







ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING, AND CONSTRUCTION 



59 




,S 1LCO MD. I*I,OOB_; PI, AM • 

^Ht-^-iv HL£R->SCHOOI,- WAjHlMOJft-_D-G 

Fig. 58. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



II I 



1 1 i II 1| 




TH1LD- Jl,OOL' 5UK ■ 



Vffi. -i>. lW.fi.UL_> AACHllLOt ,_"•.. 1,00 



Fig. 59. 



CHAPTER III 
LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 

By Howard Gilkey, B.S., Landscape Architect 

Beauty in School Grounds. The Out-of-doors Part of the School. The Relation of Architecture and Planting. The Harmony 
of Lines, Color, and Texture in Plant Composition. Indigenous Plants. The Use of Exotics. The Real Basis of Plant Selection. 
The Proper Use of Flowers. The Border Plantation. The Value of Landscape Architecture. 



Beauty in School Grounds. — A man feels more the 
master of his fate when well clothed than in rags. 
It is equally true that a child will aspire to nobler 
aims in contact with beautiful surroundings. It is 
important then that the community should foster a 
love of beauty, as it makes for better citizenship. 
To merely solve the practical requirements of living 
does not give evidence of as high a state of civiliza- 
tion as to set about the solution in a beautiful way. 
The school as the training house of the people must 
take this truth into consideration. It is no longer satis- 
factory that the school and its grounds and buildings 
be adequate for instruction purposes; they should be 
beautiful as well. We must not tolerate conditions 
formerly prevailing when the school building reared 
itself on a dusty, treeless expanse of earth. For the 
child who comes from a home equally unattractive, 
such a place offers nothing that will satisfy the innate 
longing for the beautiful, — an instinct modern civiliza- 
tion must find the means to develop. With such develop- 
ment a long step in advance toward the eradication of 
unwholesome living conditions will have been made. 

The Out-of-doors Part of the School. — It is no 
longer believed that the school is confined to the 
four walls of the building. Certain activities of the 
child are housed within walls ; others are " housed " 
out-of-doors. The architecture of the school building, 
through daily inspiration, develops good taste in the 
child. Pictures on the wall, copies of the Masters, 
stimulate aesthetic appreciation. Similarly the pupils 
become familiar with the best in every sphere of human 
thought and endeavor. In the modern school this 
application of good principle does not confine itself 
to the building ; it is continued into the school grounds, 
where it endeavors to provide the best environment 
for the activities that are to take place outside the 
building itself. Open-air activities are both recreational 



and vocational. They increase in number and com- 
plexity with the growth of the child, requiring more 
and more space and involving greater expense. To 
provide an economical arrangement of the areas re- 
quired by these activities, the unity and order of which 
becomes a source of beauty to be enhanced by judicious 
planting, is the function of good design applied to school 
grounds. 

Grounds surrounding school buildings have been too 
small, with every available inch of space used for play. 
There has not been room for the planting of trees and 
grass. It should not be inferred that any part of the 
child's enjoyment is to be sacrificed for the mere sake 
of making playgrounds attractive. Playgrounds are 
primarily for children, and secondarily for the growth 
of plants. But as the physical development of the child 
requires conditions hygienically correct, in like manner 
his unfolding mind needs an environment of order and 
beauty. To provide this, more land must be secured, 
as the play-space should not be restricted. 

Play and planting will not mix. Hence the first im- 
portant thing in the general plan is to separate the 
grounds into their several space units. These will 
consist roughly of areas where (i) play is the controlling 
element, where (2) planting for aesthetic purposes is 
the leading factor, and where (3) the ground is devoted 
to school gardens whose function is purely educational. 
It is with the second of these that our discussion will be 
largely concerned. 

The Relation of Architecture and Planting. — The 
choice adjustment of architectural and horticultural 
elements produces a composition most nearly approach- 
ing absolute beauty. "From the intimate union of 
art and nature, of architecture and the landscape, 
will be born the best gardening compositions, which 
time, purifying public taste, now promises to us." 1 
It is in his treatment of the main facade of the 



1 Edouard Andre. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




^^ 



LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 



63 



building that the architect has the opportunity to 
give expression to the aesthetic ideals born of his pro- 
fession. But this is only part of the complete com- 
position ; it is fitting that the charm of the structure 
should be enhanced by complementary planting. The 
building and the grounds form a complementary relation- 
ship in the larger unity. Architecture is rigid ; planting 
is yielding. Architecture furnishes the high light and 
the deep shadow, while planting supplies the half tones. 
The austere quality of the building art requires the added 
softness of foliage. 

It is in this complementary part that the artistic 
sympathy for values created by the architect should 
be considered by the landscape designer. It is not 
merely a matter of planting shrubbery about a building 
in order to cover bare spaces of soil. Even worse than 
the unfortunately common practice of placing a well- 
designed work of architecture in the center of a bare lot, 
is the injudicious development of an overplanted and 
unsympathetically studied scheme. The appearance of 
an imposing building can be completely ruined by planta- 
tions, indiscriminately placed about the structure. On 
the other hand, no amount of carefully studied tree 
grouping can give charm to an inherently ugly building. 
It is best to efface it. One of the greatest delights that 
comes to a landscape architect is the creation of a com- 
position dominated by a masterly work of architecture. 

The public has gradually awakened to the necessity 
of good architecture for school buildings. Progressively, 
then, we may expect an increased interest in the land- 
scape development of the grounds about these buildings, 
for, as Lord Bacon said, " A man shall ever see that when 
ages grow to civility and elegancy, men come to build 
stately sooner than to garden finely, as if gardening were 
the greater perfection." 

Perhaps there is no greater opportunity of producing 
that " pleasing contrast in the juxtaposition of art and 
nature " than in the treatment of the front approach 
of a school. The modern school building particularly 
lends itself to the graces of the landscape. Necessity 
demands that simplicity prevail and that small expense 
be lavished upon details of finishing except on principal 
entrances where money can be well spent. Often broad 
expanses of bare walls, including the ends of whole 
wings, are necessary to secure the requisite unilateral 
lighting for the classrooms, and often the base of the 
building is left unrelieved by moldings. All these con 
ditions permit of planting close to the walls ; in fact, 
they require it. The architectural errors then cease 
to be an obtrusion thrust into the heart of nature, but 
are tied to nature by transitional lines. 

The Harmony of Lines, Color, and Texture ur Plant 
Composition. — The accomplishment of that transition 



becomes the chief role of the landscape architect. A 
graphic illustration of the principle is that of a right angle 
with a curved bracket joining the two legs. At its ends 
the curve conforms more and more to the respective 
straight lines which it connects. In much the same 
manner the lines of the shrubbery should merge into 
the lines of the architecture. At a distance remote 
from the structure, the planting should be, as near as we 
can comprehend it, that of nature, soft, undulating, 
harmonious. As it approaches the building it becomes 
more servile to the lines, masses, and color of the archi- 
tecture. In this way, contrasting vertical lines are with 
greater frequency introduced, breaking the undulating 
silhouette of shrubbery. 

Besides the prominent verticalities which break the 
skyline already referred to, fully as important are the 
phases of color and texture composition. A bold mass 
of color misplaced draws the attention powerfully from 
the true center of interest, which should be some feature 
of the building. Properly placed, the same mass of color 
may tend to fix the attention upon the main objective. 

Often it happens that the finished building does not 
fully satisfy the color sense of the architect. This is 
particularly true with brick buildings, where the final 
effect varies from a state of harshness to one of lifeless- 
ness. By the introduction in the first case of foliage 
color tending to harmonize with the brick color, and in 
the second case of foliage color tending to be comple- 
mentary to the brick color, the general tone may be 
softened or heightened as desired. A building of rich 
color, whether of brick, terra cotta, sgraffito, or of colored 
plaster, will require much restraint of foliage color, 
while a simple gray plastered surface may be the canvas 
upon which to display a vast amount of color in vines, 
trees, and shrubs. A simple structure of no particular 
individuality may well be smothered in soft masses of 
vegetation and color. It will be readily seen that the 
use of color about a structure of considerable dignity 
is a matter of no small consideration. 

Harmony of texture is most easily obtained but 
seldom seen. Simply stated, plants of harmonious 
texture have leaves of the same general shape and size. 
The landscape designer is able to select many unrelated 
plants and secure a simple harmony by planting to- 
gether those which have a uniform texture, progressing 
in a sequential manner to other forms of coarser or finer 
quality. The tasteful introduction of contrasts follows 
the same general procedure. In this way an occasional 
bold spot of foliage may be relieved against the back- 
ground of a finer-textured mass, thus introducing more 
spirit into the planting design as the dominating archi- 
tectural motive is approached. A stronger composi- 
tion will by this means be produced. 



64 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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When this arrangement is accomplished it will be 
apparent that to secure the finest effect there should be 
ample opportunity provided for viewing the entire 
facade in a comprehensive manner. This is a justifiable 
reason for setting the building back as much as a hun- 
dred feet from the street. But in addition to this is the 
necessity for quiet and seclusion for the classroom, in a 
location remote from the noises of the street. Hand in 
hand are the practical and aesthetic requirements ; and 
solving one is to make the solution of the other possible. 

After securing a pleasing composition of building 
lines and base planting, the effect should not be lessened 
by- introducing distracting foreground detail. From 
the street to the base plantation there ought to be a 
simple stretch of grass, except where necessary walks 
must be introduced. The serenity of the lawn should 
not be disturbed by scattering over its surface irregular 
groups, specimen trees, and those delights of the gardener, 
carpet beds in vulgar patterns. Occasionally a few trees 
will be required for shade, but it is better to forego this 
pleasing feature than to overplant. Above all, the 
gardener should not be permitted to indulge in ring-a- 
round-a-rosy beds, encircling every tree in the lawn. 
After the first few years the grass can grow as in nature, 
right up to the trunk of the tree. Shrubs may be grown 
on the lawn, but not scattered over its surface. Utility 
is the main consideration. Shrubs should be planted 
to prevent cutting corners, and at the same time to 
soften the junction of conflicting path lines. Little 
of this sort of planting will need to be done if the system 
of walks has been carefully studied. 



Few flowers should be introduced in front of the 
building. It is not that they invite vandalism, for if 
they do, something is fundamentally wrong with the 
community, a condition which should be rectified if 
possible. The plants commonly called flowers, i.e., the 
annuals requiring yearly renewal by sowing fresh seed, 
and the perennials whose tops die down but whose 
roots persist from year to year, are frequently moved, 
an operation which often results in discordant clashes 
of color, and which may provide false accents, nullifying 
the preconceived climax of effect. Since color is the 
most noticeable quality of plant growth, its scheme 
should be carefully studied and executed in permanent 
shrubs / rather than in perishable flowers. There are 
many varieties of shrubs which are rich in color of flower, 
fruit, leaf, and even of twig. 

The plant materials to be used in the landscape 
gardening of the school grounds should be mainly trees, 
shrubs, and vines. After becoming once established 
they require little care, a fact which makes the upkeep 
more certain of success. Often the janitor without 
previous experience has to add the gardening to his 
already long list of accomplishments. Therefore .we 
should use materials which will require the least amount 
of attention. It is a fact that without adequate main- 
tenance the best-laid plans will result in nothing worth 
while. It should be the purpose of good planting design 
to place the least burden upon future caretakers, thus 
insuring the success of the scheme. 

Indigenous Plants. — Much disappointment will be 
avoided by using native material. This alone is a 



LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 



65 



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GENERAL P L A N 

LANDSCAPE D E V E L O ? M E N T 

LOS ANGELAS L i G fl . S C It O O L 

b ( 
' J) J V I .S I O N OF i. A v - D S ' ' A ? I GARDENING- 

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66 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



sufficient reason for the insistence upon the choice of 
indigenous plants. " What is fair, must be fit," applies 
here, for the wild things growing in the neighborhood 
are ready for all the whims of weather. They will 
be harmonious as well. It seems within the limits 
of generalization, that a given locality tends to pro- 
duce vegetable forms which are harmonious, their 
harmony probably resulting from mutually similar 




LAND5CAPL P LA 
Ton mi 
PULNTC UNION HIGH 
PULN1L CAUrOJIKIA 



processes of adaptation to meet the common environ- 
ment. Not only should native plants be used be- 
cause they are harmonious and fit, but they should 
be fostered from motives of local pride. Every child 
should know the principal trees, shrubs, vines, and 
flowers of the locality. Acquaintance with them can 
best be obtained through daily association. In a Cali- 
fornia school-ground we should expect to find the red- 
wood, the giant Sequoia, the oak, the ma- 
drone, the incense cedar, the silver fir, the 
bay tree, the various pines, the big-leaf 
maple, the Christmas berry, the wild lilac, 
the carpenteria, the wild cherry, and wild 
coffee. In the Northwest, in addition to 
the members of the pine family already 
mentioned, we would look for many splendid 
conifers, such as the Lawson cypress and 
Douglas fir, with a profusion of rhododen- 
drons, azaleas, huckleberry, and salal. 

While native trees and shrubs should 
form an important part of the plant ma- 
terial for school landscape work, any outside 
materials which associate well should be 
used. Indeed, the landscape designer would 
be seriously handicapped if he were forced 
to use the limited number of forms found in 
some places. Plants partake obviously of 
the artificiality of their new positions, and 
often the wild straggling habit of much 
native growth will not be desired. Then, 
too, there is educational value in a greater 
assortment. Without becoming a veritable 
botanical garden, the school plantations 
should be varied for the simple purpose of 
providing material for instruction. 

The Use of Exotics. — After a certain 
priority right has been given to the native 
plants, many from remoter regions whose 
climatic conditions are similar should be 
used, insuring hardihood and a certain de- 
gree of harmony. As an instance of this, 
it may be stated that in the interior valleys 
of California, where the summers are hot 
and dry, the winters wet, and very heavy 
frosts common, one finds, beside native 
plants, many species from southern Europe, 
North Africa, Asia Minor, Interior China, 
Northern Japan, and Southern Australia. 

The Real Basis of Plant Selection. — 
Whatever the choice of plants, then let 
them be selected for their adaptation to the 
soil and the climate, their ability to stand 
rough usage and neglect, their appearance 



LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 



67 



of being at home in their appointed positions and 
affording a degree of variety for educational interest 
consonant with harmony of color and texture. 

The numerous changes in plant life render the problem 
of design intricate. Every day of the year some new 
blossom is out ; some new leaf unfolds ; some mature 
one turns color, finally dropping off and exposing new 
lines of bare branches; some new cluster of berries 
grows warmer in tone and at length blazes into full 
richness of hue. The solution is not alone that of pro- 
ducing new interests throughout the year, but that of 
providing a tasteful arrangement of a series of composi- 
tions of texture and color, each merging insensibly into 
the next. At successive periods it will be apple blossom 
time, lilac time, the season for wild roses, clematis, 
plumbago, autumn leaves, and then berry season. At 



may be just the touch needed to relieve a scene made 
heavy by monotonous masses. 

The study of deciduous trees and shrubs and their 
composition value is too often slighted. The material 
at our command embraces the beech, the wild buckeye, 
the red-twigged dogwood, the yellow-barked willows, the 
sycamore, and the lovely white birch. 

For the charm of pure rich color the berries supply 
the one element at the landscape architect's command 
comparable to the painter's primary palette. For many 
months they " stay put " in solid masses, at a time of 
year when the school is most active and the sky is dullest 
overhead. Calif ornians may plant Christmas berry 
(the native toyon), pyracanthas, cotoneasters, moun- 
tain ashes, hawthorns, many of which are hardy in 
the East, where one must piece out with high-bush 




these periods there should be bold masses of the dominant 
color with lesser touches of more or less complemen- 
tary hues to set them off. When soft pastel shades are 
used, the result may chance to be pleasing whatever 
the mixture. Certainly the inconsistencies will not be 
so glaring. It is in the use of the bright reds and yel- 
lows where taste and experience are necessary. Avoid 
magenta, a color which seems to clash with the usual 
hues of the landscape. 

Of the seasons of the year, spring and summer will in 
variety of blossom take care of themselves ; it is the fall 
and winter season that must have their share of enliven- 
ment. Where autumn leaves are a conspicuous native 
charm, their brilliant hues can be made to tell as accents 
against more neutral backgrounds. A single poplar 
or a small group will gleam in soft yellow against a 
background of dull green pines. After the leaves have 
fallen, the same poplar will exhibit a graceful tracery 
of branches, adding the quality of etched lines, which 



cranberry, holly, and rose hips. But wherever one finds 
them they are most gorgeous and most welcome. On 
the other hand the planting of berried shrubs can be 
very much overdone. The groups should not be too 
large and should not be placed without a greater mass 
of neutral foliage or a dull wall as a background. The 
masses must be well-shaped and not mere blots of loud 
color. In front of a symmetrical building they should 
be arranged with the idea of balance continuously in 
mind. 

' Proper Use of Flowers. — Little has been said about 
flowers. Aside from the restricted use of a clump 
of irises here and there, pentstemons, foxgloves, or 
a clump of hollyhocks in a corner, the place for the 
flowers is in the students' gardens. Roses may be 
introduced, forming part of the shrub masses, varie- 
ties with good foliage, such as the Irish Elegance, 
Cherokee, and Madame Cecille Brunner. Most roses, 
however, require too much pruning, spraying, and 



68 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL GROUNDS 



69 



other bothersome care. Where space is limited, 
climbers are the main resource, needing little room but 
a place in which to root. Many a roughcast building 
requires the soft lace-work of Boston ivy to relieve its 
severity. Pergolas and fences are made for roses, 
wistarias, clematis, trumpet "vines, honeysuckle, and 
jessamine. Here they may run rampant, but on the 
buildings the sense of structure should not be obliterated 
by a complete covering of vine growth. 

The Border Plantation. — In the consideration of the 
school front, every effort has been made to produce 
something beautiful, to stimulate the child's mind 
to acts worthy of his environment. It is a part of 
the grounds which he must cherish and protect. 
The careful mother does not allow her child to 
enter the drawing-room with muddy feet or to romp 
there with the dog. So we will inclose the play- 
ground. Let us do this by means of a fence, strong 
and permanent. Usually no great expense need be lav- 
ished upon mere ornament, for the fence should be 
screened from outside view, with foliage. Let the 
fence be set back some six to twelve feet from the prop- 
erty line to allow for a border of shrub plantation. Es- 
pecially necessary is this along the street fronts. There 
are many valid reasons for such a screen. All play- 
ground authorities agree that the fence permits of better 
supervision and protection of property. From the 
outsider's point of view the expanse of bare ground of 
the playground field is not very pleasing, nor does it 
tend to raise property values in a choice residence sec- 
tion. By providing for the ornamental frame out- 



side the fence, the school presents to the public an 
entirely attractive appearance. 

From the inside point of view, the border of plant- 
ing does much to produce the effect of group solidarity. 
A little domain is hereby set aside for single-minded en- 
joyment of play. Without self-consciousness the boy 
or girl may exercise in hygienic attire. Besides this, 
the scene of play activity is redeemed from its severity 
of setting by the beauty of the encircling foliage. Where 
space is limited the border can be restricted to a narrow 
strip providing enough room for vines or for a single 
hedge outside the fence. This is of course not so fine 
as the broader treatment. The fence should return 
at a point usually in line with the main rear wall of the 
building. The border planting then merges easily 
into the front parking. 

The Value of Landscape Architecture. — The school 
of the future will no longer tolerate the shortcomings 
of the past. A realization of the value of beauty 
has developed in modern education. The mass of 
the people is already alive to the value of beauty in 
school buildings, and it will not be long before the 
larger unity of architecture and grounds is understood 
by all. The landscape architect will become a neces- 
sary associate to the architect. Each will have ap- 
preciation of the work of the other. 

By this valuable cooperation there will result a har- 
monizing of color, line, and texture, and with such a 
well-considered environment the child will be developed 
along these physical and mental lines, that will so satis- 
factorily affect his growth and development. 



CHAPTER IV 
COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A. I. A. 

Costs of School Buildings. Requirements for a Low Elementary School. Requirements for a High Elementary School. Re- 
quirements for Junior High and Pre- Vocational School. Data for a General or Inclusive High School. Methods of Computing 
Costs. Cost Per Classroom. Cost Per Pupil. Cost Per Square Foot of Floor Area. Cost Per Cubic Foot. Cubic Contents. Types 
of Construction. Class A. Class B. Class C. Class D. Class E or Frame Construction. Classification of Heating and Ventila- 
tion. Grades. Sanitary Installations. Electrical Installations. Classification of the Educational Grades. The Elementary 
School. The Junior High School. The High School. 

Table No. i, Approximate Costs per Cubic Foot for Class A, B, and C Buildings. Table No. 2, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot 
of Different Grades of School Buildings. Table No. 3, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot for Different Grades of Heating and Ventilat- 
ing Systems. Table No. 4, Approximate Costs Per Cubic Foot for Plumbing and Electrical Installations. 

Cost of Equipment. Cost Data for a Proposed High School. Comparative Costs and Records. 

Table No. A, Form of Record. Table No. B, Subdivision of Costs of Contracts. 

Static Capacity. Static Capacity of Building. American Institute of Architects' Classification of School Buildings and Construction. 



Costs of School Buildings. — There are two distinct 
purposes in seeking to determine the costs of school 
buildings : one to enable boards of education to provide 
with some degree of accuracy sufficient funds for the 
erection and equipment of new buildings, and the other 
to determine, by comparison with the costs of similar 
structures before the board has obligated itself by con- 
tracts, the economy to be exercised in the planning and 
construction of the proposed work. The former is es- 
sential to good business management, and the latter 
is a necessary precaution against extravagance. 

There have been more disappointments, misunder- 
standings, and loss of confidence through injudicious 
expenditure of money for the building of schools than 
in all other transactions by boards of education. This 
condition is largely due more to the indefinite methods 
employed at the early stages of the undertakings than 
to any other cause. It is not to be expected that elected 
members of boards of education should know how to 
unravel and classify the maze of details related to 
this work, as they are usually of the laity and therefore 
unacquainted with the vast educational and building 
minutiae which go to make up the whole. 

However, since they are morally, socially, and po- 
litically responsible for providing and expending the 
funds, it is all-essential that they have prepared for them 
definite data setting forth the necessary contents of the 
building, the character of the construction, the grade 
of the sanitation, the system of heating and ventilation, 
and the facts relating to the other building appoint- 



ments before establishing the budget for the proposed 
structure. This requires close collaboration among 
members of the board, its officers and the architect. 

The following lists of requirements for the low and 
high elementary, the junior high, and the senior or 
regular high schools are offered as indicative of the 
necessity of having a definite scheme prepared before 
attempting to compute the costs of a school building. 
Deductions or additions may be made to suit the par- 
ticular problem of each community. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR A LOW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, 
GRADE I TO VI INCLUSIVE 

1. Principal. 

(a) Office — telephone and programs systems, fire alarm. 

(b) Toilet. 

(c) Storage space. 

{d) Library for text books. 

2. Teachers. 

1« 



combined. 



(a) Rest room, 

(b) Lunch room 

(c) Kitchen. 

(d) Toilet. 

(e) Wardrobes or closets. 

3. Medical Department. 

(a) Emergency room. 

(b) Toilet. 

4. Mechanical Department. 

(a) Boiler room (isolated). 

(b) Fan room. 

(c) Work and repair room. 

(d) Incinerator. 

(e) Janitor's closet on each floor. 

Note: The above rooms should be of fireproof construction. 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



7i 



5. Pupils' Service. 

(a) Bicycle rooms. 

(b) Toilet rooms (on each floor) 

(c) Playrooms, boys and girls. 

(d) Showers, boys and girls. 

6. Department of Instruction. 

(a) Classrooms — wardrobes. 

(b) Kindergarten — wardrobes and toilets. 

(c) Drawing room for V and VI grades. 

7. Assembly Hall. (Seating 60 per cent of the school capacity.) 

(a) Stage — dressing rooms. 

(b) Moving picture booth. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR A HIGH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
GRADES I TO VIII INCLUSIVE 

1. Principal Suite. 

(a) Public office, waiting room. 

(b) Private office. 

(c) Toilet. 

(d) Storage. 

(e ) Telephones — program system — fire alarm. 

2. Library. For text books and about 1000 reference and fiction 

books. 

3. Teachers' Suite. 

(a) Rest room. 

(b) Lunch room, kitchenette. 

(c) Toilets. 

(d) Wardrobes. 

4. Medical Department. 

(a) Emergency room. 

(b) Examination rooms. 

(c) Toilet rooms. 

(d) Girls' rest room. 

5. Mechanical Department. 

(a) Boiler room (isolated). 

(b) Fan rooms. 

(c) Work and repair room. I Fireproof 

(d) Storage room. construction. 

(e) Incinerator. 
(/) Janitor's room on each floor. , 

6. Pupils' Service. 

(a) Bicycle rooms. 

(b) Toilet rooms (on each floor). 

(c) Playrooms (boys and girls). 

(d) Swimming (possible). 

(e) Showers (boys and girls) . 
(J) Dressing rooms. 
(g) Athletic-field rooms. 

7. Gymnasium. 

(a) Dressing rooms | If there is a swimming pool one set v 

(b) Showers / do for both pool and gymnasium. 

(c) Instructor's room. 

(d) Examination rooms. 

(e) Apparatus room. 
8'. Department of Instruction. 

(a) Classrooms — wardrobes. 

(b) Kindergarten — wardrobes, 
o. Home Economics. 

(a) Cooking room. 

(b) Dining room. 

(c) Pantry. 

(d) Sewing room. 



(e) Fitting room. 

(/) Locker room, supplies. 

Manual Training. 

'a) Bench room. 

[b) Lumber room. 

c) Finishing room. 

[d) Painting room (fireproof). 

[e) Small fireproof room for storage of painting materials. 
Drawing. 

a) Freehand. 

b) Mechanical. 
Music. 

Choral room. 

b) Small practice rooms (dressing rooms off stage serve well) . 
) Office for storage of instruments, music sheets, books, 
etc. 
Assembly Hall. 

Main room to seat about 60 per cent of the school capacity. 

b) Stage — with dressing rooms. 

c) Moving picture booth. 
Science Department. 

Laboratory for general science. 
b) Storeroom. 
;) Germinating room. 
'ommercial. 

a) Bookkeeping. 

b) Commercial geography. 



REQUIREMENTS FOR JUNIOR HIGH AND PRE-VOCA- 
TIONAL SCHOOL, ACCOMMODATING 1200 STUDENTS 

Administration : 

1 . Principal. 

(a) Public office. 

(b) Private office — telephone program system, fire alarm. 

(c) Storage space. 

(d) Toilet room. 

(e) Vault for school records. 

2. Large Storage Room: 

(a) Books. 

(b) Charts. 

(c) School supplies. 

3. Medical Department. 

(a) Emergency room. 

(b) Examination rooms. 

(c) Toilet. 

4. Teachers' Accommodations. 

(a) Teachers' room (men) lockers. 

(b) Toilet room. 

(c) Teachers' room (women). 

(d) Wardrobe closets. 

(e) Toilet room. 
(/) Lunch room. 
(g) Kitchenette. 

5. Mechanical Department. 

(a) Boiler room (isolated). 

(b) Fan rooms and plenum chambers. 

(c) Fresh air intakes. 

(d) Possibly air washer, generally not needed (depending on 

location of building). 

(e) Switchboard room. 

(/) Work and repair room, 
(g) Storage room. 



7 2 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



(h) Incinerator. 

(i) Janitor's closet on each floor. 

Note: The above should be of fireproof construction. 

6. Pupils' Service. 

(a) Bicycle rooms, boys and girls. 

(b) Locker rooms, off corridors, boys and girls. 

(c) Toilet rooms, on each floor, boys and girls. 

7. Department of Instruction. 
Two study rooms to accommodate j to f of student body 
Library : Close to study rooms. 
(a) Art alcoves and exhibition room. 

8. Classrooms. 

16 to 20 major period classrooms depending on school enroll- 
ment and judgment of the superintendent. 

Plan of building should be so designed that this departmen 
may be increased, as occasion or conditions warrant 
without destroying the symmetry of the general plan. 

Size of classrooms should be determined by the superintends 
of schools, that is, the maximum capacity. Would recom- 
mend that classrooms for Junior High School do nol 
exceed 35 seats. 

Certain rooms should be designed for emergency of 45 
seats. 

9. Commercial Department. 

(a) Bookkeeping room. 

(b) Small banking space at end pf bookkeeping room. 

(c) Typewriting space. 

(d) Office and storage rooms. 

10. Home Economics. 

(a) Two domestic science rooms (cooking rooms). 

(b) Pantry and storage rooms. 

(c) Small dining room (for training in service) . 

(d) Lockers. 

(e) Domestic arts (sewing and dressmaking). 
(J) Millinery room. 

(g) Design and drawing room. 

\ living room, 
(k) Housekeeping suite j dining room, 

[ kitchen, small laundry, toilet. 
This might well be a small inexpensive cottage near 

school. 
The living room may serve as Mothers' Club meeting 
room. 

11. Industrial Arts Department. 

(1) Mechanical drawing rooms. 

(2) Free hand drawing rooms. 

(3) Manual training room with a small amount of wood- 

working machinery, such as: 

(a) A planer, joiner, hand-saw, circular saw, and grinder, 

and about 24 benches. 

(b) Also one additional bench room of 24 benches. 

(c) Lumber room. 

(d) Gluing room (small). 

(e) Painting and finishing room. 
(J) Tool room. 

(g) Storage room for finished work. 

(4) General shop for some machine shop work, electrical 

work, plumbing, sheet metal, etc. This shop should 
be equipped with a little of everything, so that the 
boy may feel his way towards the work leading to a 
vocation. 

(5) Wash, toilet, and locker rooms arranged for common use 

by students in both shops. 



12. Music Department. 

(a) Large choral room treated for good acoustics, which may 

be used for orchestral and band practice. 

(b) The supervisor of music may recommend another similar 

room for the orchestra and band, in which case they 
could be so placed that (a) and (&) may be combined. 

(c) A few small practice rooms. 

(d) Office and space for storage of instruments, music sheets, 

books, etc. 

(e) The choral room could be used for training in dramatics 

and expression. 
(/) A large visual instruction room (moving pictures and 
stereopticon) . 

13. Assembly Hall. 

(a) Assembly Hall to seat 10 per cent more than school 

capacity and so arranged that it may be divided into 
three halls by use of roller curtains. (See Assembly 
Hall Plans in Chapter on Assembly Halls.) 

(b) Stage adaptable for scenery, possibly a loft and gridiron. 

(c) Moving picture equipment. 

(d) Dressing rooms. 

14. Gymnasium. 

(a) Gymnasium. 

(b) Showers — boys and girls. 

(c) Locker rooms. 

(d) Dressing rooms, toilets. 

(e) Apparatus room. 
(/) Instructors' offices, 
(g) Examination rooms. 

15. Science Department. 

(a) Three general science laboratories. 

(b) Germinating rooms (conservatory). 

(c) Storeroom (large) with cases especially designed. 

(d) Work and repair room, not very large. 

Inasmuch as all three (7th, 8th, and 9th) grades will take this 
course, which embraces Physical Geography, Biology, Physiology, 
Botany, Elementary Chemistry, and Elementary Physics, there 
should be at least three and possibly four main General Science 
Laboratories with the attendant accessory rooms as listed under 
(b), (c), and (d). 

Note: Extension of this Department should be determined by 
the superintendent of schools, who may consider it advisable to 
add small Chemistry and Physics laboratories. 
DATA FOR A GENERAL OR INCLUSIVE HIGH SCHOOL 

ACCOMMODATING 1500 TO 2500 PUPILS 
Administration: 

1. Registrar's Office. 

(a) Large working and waiting room. 

(b) Vault for school records. 

(c) Storage space. 

(d) Wardrobe closets. 

(e) Program system. 
(/) Telephone system, 
(g) Teachers' time clocks. 

2. Principal (Day School). 

(a) Private office. 

(b) Toilet. 

(c) Storage space. 

(d) Consultation room (small) . 
> J dean of boys, 



3. (a) Two vice-principals' offices, private 
(b) Waiting rooms. 
(r) Toilets. 



{ dean of girls. 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



73 



(d) Storage spaces. 

(e) Girls' rest room near office of dean of girls. 
(/) Toilets. 

4. (a) Principal (evening school). 

(b), (c), (d) same as vice-principal's suite. 

5. Storage space (books, charts, documents, general school sup- 

plies, vault). 

6. Medical Departments. 

(a) Emergency room. 

(b) Examination room. 

(c) Waiting rooms, boys' and girls'. 

(d) Toilet rooms. 

7. Teachers' Department. 

(a) Teachers' room (men). 

(b) Locker room. 

(c) Toilet room. 

(d) Teachers' room (women). 

(e) Locker room. 
(/) Rest room. 
(g) Toilet room. 

Note: For lunch room see chapter on cafeteria. 

8. Mechanical Plant. 

(a) Boiler and pump room (isolated from building). 

(b) Fan rooms and plenum chambers. 

(c) Fresh air intakes. 

(d) Air washers (depending on location of building) . 

(e) Switchboard room (preferably in electrical shop). 
(/) Work and repair room. 

(g) Storage room (supplies). 
(h) Incinerator. 

Note: The above should be housed in fireproof construc- 
tion, and possibly in a separate building called 
"Power Plant." 
(i) Janitor's closets on each floor. 
0. Pupils' Service. 

(a) Bicycle rooms or space (boys' and girls'). 

(b) Locker rooms (boys' and girls'). 

(c) Toilet rooms (boys' and girls') on each floor. 

(d) Rooms for officers of school government. 

(e) Students cooperative book store. 

10. Cafeteria. 

(a) Lunch rooms (boys' and girls') seating 900 at a time. 

(b) Serving space. 

(c) Large kitchen. 

(d) Scullery and garbage rooms. 

(e) Storage rooms and refrigerators. 
(/) Toilets for help (men and women) . 
(g) Wardrobe for help (men and women). 
(k) Separate lunch room for teachers. 

11. Service Department. 

(a) General help room. 

(b) Toilets. 

(c) Supply storage. 

12. Assembly Hall. 

(a) Room so arranged it may be divided into three halls. 

Floor sloping. Seats fixed. 

(b) Stage with gridiron. 

(c) Dressing rooms. 

(d) Moving picture booth. 

(e) Property room. 

13. Gymnasiums. (Boys' and girls'.) Near athletic field. 

(a) Large gymnasium, divided by curtains and so it may be 
thrown into one or two rooms. 



(b) Directors' rooms (men and women). 

(c) Dressing rooms and locker rooms. 

(d) Examination rooms. 

(e) Shower baths (boys' and girls') . 
(J) Toilets (boys' and girls'). 

(g) Storage for equipment. 
(h) Gallery and running track. 
(i) Swimming pool. 

14. Library. 

(a) Large reading room (capacity for 10,000 to 20,000 books). 

(b) Librarian and work or repair room. 

(c) Possibly a stack room. 

(d) Seating capacity at least 6 per cent of the enrollment. 

(e) Lecture and museum room. 

15. Department of Instruction. Academic. 

(a) Class or recitation rooms. The size and number should 

be determined by the Superintendent of Schools, but 
would recommend at least 24 exclusive of classrooms 
in other departments. 
The general plan should be so drawn that extensions 
could easily be added without destroying the symmetry 
of the scheme and so that the future classrooms would 
be adjacent to the section built at this time. 

(b) Three study halls, each approximately 3o'x65', seating 

about 120 students. These study halls should be 
divided in two by means of folding doors or rolling 
partitions so that when desired they could be converted 
into classrooms. 

Commercial Department 

16. Bookkeeping. 

(a) Three or four classrooms seating 36 each. 

(b) Teachers' office connected with each room. 
' (c) Storage rooms. 

(d) Arithmetic classrooms. 

(e) Law and commercial geography classroom. 

(/) Room for banking divided into saving, school banking, 

and national banking, 
(g) One classroom for penmanship. 
(h) Room for mechanical accounting. 

17. Shorthand and Typing. 

(a) Three or four rooms for typing. 
(b)^ Three rooms for shorthand. 

(c) Room for duplicating and multigraphing. 

(d) Offices for teachers. 

(e) Storage rooms. 

Science Department 

18. Chemistry. 

(a) Three chemistry laboratories, each accommodating 24 

students. 

(b) Offices and storage rooms. 

(c) Two lecture rooms, seating about 50 to 60. 

(d) One dark room (for photography) . 

(e) Balance room (isolated). 

(/) One special laboratory (not very large) fitted for special 
work such as assaying and for instructors' special work. 

19. Other Science Laboratories, 
(a) Biology laboratory. 
(6) Botany laboratory. 

(c) Conservatory of fairly good size. 

(d) Physiology laboratory. 

(e) Physical geography and map room. 



74 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



(/) General science laboratory. 

(g) Lecture room seating about 60. 

(h) Office for each instructor. 

(i) Large storeroom for each laboratory. 

(j) Preparation rooms for instructors, for each laboratory or 

between laboratories. 
(k) Possibly a general museum for use by all the above 

laboratories. 
Note: For economy (a), (b), and (d) could be combined 
and possibly (e) and (/). 

20. Physics. 

(a) Two large physics laboratories (mechanics and electrical). 

(b) One lecture room seating approximately 60. 

(c) One preparation room between laboratories. 

(d) Three large apparatus storage rooms. 

(e) One repair room. 
(J) One office. 

(g) One wireless telegraphy room. 
(h) One advanced physics laboratory. 

Home Economics 

21. Cooking. 

(a) Three domestic science rooms (cooking). (One elemen- 

tary and two advanced.) 

(b) Pantries and storage rooms between. 

(c) One general dining room. 

(d) Wardrobes and lockers for aprons and dresses. 

(e) Two offices. 

(/) Classroom or demonstration room. 
(g) Hygiene. 

22. Sewing. 

(a) Two dressmaking rooms : fitting rooms, wardrobes, locker 

rooms. 

(b) One millinery room. 

(c) One costume-designing room. 

(d) One laundry, fairly large room with apparatus for washing 

and drying. 

(e) One exhibition room. 
(/) Storerooms and offices. 

23. Homemaking rooms. 

(a) Living or dining room combined or separate as instructor 

would direct. 

(b) Kitchenette and pantry. 

(c) Bedroom. 

(d) Bath and toilet room. 

This could very well be a cottage near the school and espe- 
cially designed for this course. 

24. Drawing and Art Department. 

(a) Two large freehand drawing rooms. 

(b) Storage rooms. 

(c) Two offices. 

(d) Water color room. 

(e) Storage and office. 

(/) Four mechanical drawing rooms'. 

(g) Offices and record room. 

(h) Clay modeling and pottery room (small). 

(i) Clay storage room. 

(j) Small room for finished work. 

(k) Exhibition and art room for display of finished work of 

the above classes, centrally located, also for hanging 

paintings and placing sculpture. 

25. Music Department. 

(a) Large choral room. 



(b) Storeroom. 

(c) Two classrooms for the study of harmony and history of 

(d) Large room for orchestral and band practice and should 

be adjacent to the choral room so that both may be 
joined for joint practice and study. Double sound- 
proof doors and walls between these rooms. Both 
rooms should be treated so that the acoustics are 
favorable for the work within. 

(e) Four or five small practice rooms for instrumental music. 
(/) Arrangement for the storage of instruments, music 

stands, music sheets, books, etc. 
26. Industrial Arts. Shops. 

(1) Automobile shop. 

(a) Storage. 

(b) Tool room. 

(c) Instructor's office (small). 

(2) Machine shop. 

(a) Storage for raw material. 

(b) Tool room. 

(c) Office. 

(d) Storage for finished work. 

(3) Forge shop. 

(a) Blower and exhaust room. 

(b) Toolroom. 

(c) Storage for raw material. 

(d) Storage for finished work. 

(e) Office. 

Note: The automobile, machine, and forge shops 
should be close together, as there is a continuity 
in their work and there may be a saving in 
tools and equipment. 

(4) Carpentry, woodworking machine, cabinet, and pattern 

shops. 

(a) Lumber rooms. 

(b) Tool rooms. 

(c) Gluing rooms. 

(d) Painting and finishing rooms. 

(e) Paint cabinets, fireproof. 

(/) Storage rooms for finished work. 

(g) Sawdust and shavings extractor room and tank. 

(5) Electrical shop with main switchboard controlling entire 

plant. 

(a) Store and supply rooms. 

(b) Office. 

(c) Tool room. 

(d) Room for lighting fixtures in finished state (walls 

and ceiling). 

(e) Apparatus room. 

(6) Plumbing, sheet metal, and masonry shop. 

This shop should be higher in height so that rough 
plumbing may be carried up through three low stories 
and false roof in order that the work may be practical. 

(a) Large storerooms for the three trades. 

(b) Office. 

(7) Foundry with a cupola. 

(a) Pattern storage room. 

(b) Coke, iron, and brass storeroom. 

(c) Core room and core oven. 

(d) Office. 

(8) General lecture or demonstration room. 

(9) Exhibition room for the best work of students. This 

will stimulate interest in the work. 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



75 



(10) There should be wash and locker rooms between every 
two shops, also toilet rooms and a shower room near 
the foundry and close to the forge, automobile, and 
machine shop. 

(n) Printing plant. 

(a) Editorial room (school paper) . 

(b) Office for instructor. 

(c) Storage rooms for supplies. 

27. A swimming-pool is listed as a suggestion; and if a Board 

deems it advisable it should be placed near the gymnasium, 
so that the one set of showers, dressing and locker rooms 
for each of the sexes could very well be used, thereby 
economizing in plumbing equipment and floor space. 
Should this physical education feature be adopted it would 
be advisable for the department to install its own water 
system. 

28. It might be advisable for a Board to install an electrical 

generating system, for lighting and power, as high-pressure 
boilers will have to be installed in any event for heating. 
Also a school of this character will be attended by evening 
or continuation students during the entire school year. 
And the cost of maintenance may be kept at a minimum. 

29. Athletic Field. 

(a) One-fourth of a mile track. 

(b) Bleachers. 

(c) Small part of main building for emergency room, apparatus, 

and tools. 

Methods of Computing Cost. — Several methods 
are used in arriving at the proposed cost. These will 
be discussed in the order of their merit and accuracy. 
More often than otherwise no well-developed method 
at all is followed; but a lump sum is arbitrarily fixed 
upon without due regard to its adequacy or economy. 
After its adoption, either by budget or bond election, 
when it is found that the money will not meet the re- 
quirements, the necessity of having an intelligent and 
reliable preliminary estimate based on the actual needs 
is usually acutely apparent. 

Cost Per Classroom. — The almost obsolete rule of 
thumb method of computing the preliminary estimate 
by assuming a unit cost per classroom based on the 
cost per classroom of some other school building is no 
better than hazardous guessing. Seldom, if ever, are 
the actual facts known that ruled the requirements, 
contents, construction, prevailing prices of labor and 
material, and many other building conditions which 
governed the planning, erection, and cost of the previously 
erected building taken as a guide. 

The site has much to do with the cost of the build- 
ing. A level tract of firm ground, where it is necessary 
to carry the foundations down to only a reasonably 
safe depth, will give advantages in cost per classroom 
as against a sloping site which necessitates substructures 
or extended foundations and retaining walls before the 
actual building can be started. The orientation of the 
lot, since it means a great deal to the orientation of the 



building and its various rooms, will affect the costs, 
as will the size and number of the rooms used for in- 
struction together with their related rooms. 

The differences in heating and ventilating systems 
and their costs are as varied as the types of construc- 
tion of buildings. This is true of the plumbing, electri- 
cal work, blackboards, hardware, finish, etc. Conse- 
quently, any computation based on a unit cost of 
classrooms cannot lead to accuracy, as there are so 
many other factors entering into the problem. 

Cost Per Pupil. — For the same reasons the cost 
per pupil is not sufficiently definite to warrant fixing an 
estimate by which to build, although such an attempt 
is one step better than trying to reach an estimate 
based on the cost per classroom. 

An example will help to make these conditions clear. 
Let us assume a proposed school that at completion 
will provide accommodations for x number of pupils, 
but the overhead rooms and special departments, such 
as administration rooms, assembly hall, toilet rooms, 
boiler and fan rooms, domestic science, laboratories, 
etc., etc., are of the minimum size and yet are adequate 
to provide instruction for x -f- y pupils, which very 
likely will be the number a year or two after the 
building is completed. The question naturally arises 
upon which number of pupils shall the cost be based. 
If based on x, the cost per pupil must be higher than 
if figured on x + y, and yet all the essentials except 
the additional rooms for instruction may be included 
in the original scheme. And since there is no way of 
striking a prospective average upon which to compute 
the total cost on a cost per pupil basis until the plant 
has reached its final growth, it is unsafe to base estimates 
from this standpoint, although it is well to have such a 
record when the building is completed. 

Furthermore, for comparison, this method is not 
reliable unless all the facts are known, for one school 
may have an assembly hall, playrooms, gymnasium, 
swimming-pool, etc., while another may have some of 
these rooms but not all of them, and they may be of 
smaller size and not as well equipped; or again they 
may not have any of them. Also the cost per pupil in 
one case may include the grading, planting, walks and 
fences of the grounds, and preparation of the athletic 
field, while these may be omitted altogether from another. 
Consequently the cost per pupil should be used only as 
a relative check after other and more definite measures 
and methods have been taken to determine the cost. 

When boards of education or architects are vying 
with each other on the low costs of school buildings 
per classroom and per pupil, it is reasonable to assume 
that the educational facilities, the health conditions, 
and the structural permanency of the building and its 



7 6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



finish are being curtailed or slighted in order to make a 
political or professional showing on the credit side of their 
ledger, a result which never atones for failure to do full 
justice to the problem. 

Cost per Square Foot of Floor Area. — This method 
in estimating the cost of a proposed building is not 
sufficiently accurate, as it does not involve the cubic 
contents of the building. For instance, the school 
building under consideration may have approximately 
the same floor area as another and at the same time 
may have greater story heights and a high sloping roof. 
This difference would immediately upset and make 
void any careful calculation of the proposed or com- 
parative cost. Unit cost per square foot is of very 
little help,, and should be only obtained for the addi- 
tional information it affords in tabulating the different 
unit costs of the structure. 

Cost per Cubic Foot. — Next to having actual esti- 
mates of the quantities and costs of materials and labor 
involved, the method of computing the cubic contents 
of the building and establishing a reasonable unit of cost 
per cubic foot is undoubtedly the best. Before this 
cost can be determined, it is necessary to have pre- 
liminary drawings of the entire plant, which drawings 
should clearly indicate the location and quantity of 
fixed equipment, the general treatment of the grounds, 
and also a definite understanding of the type of plan 
and the class of construction, while the equipment 
and furniture will not be considered at this time, al- 
though the final computation will necessarily include 
these items. 

Cubic Contents. — When considering the different 
types of buildings it is not so easy to define just what 
the cubic contents should include so as to have a 
unanimity of opinion, but most authorities agree on the 
following methods. 

For buildings more than one story in height the cubic 
contents should be the summation of the products 
of the following : 

The area of the ground space occupied by all por- 
tions of the building measured to its outside walls, 
multiplied by the height of these portions measured from 
a point 6" below the top of the lowest floor level to the 
average roof level. This shall include all covered or 
inclosed stoops, penthouses, covered steps or entrances, 
arcades, chimneys to roof levels, etc. Actual cubage 
of open stoops, steps, walls, and floor slabs of open areas 
should be figured solid. Where portions of the build- 
ing are built to different heights, each portion should 
be taken as an individual unit and the rule as above 
applied. The average roof level is intended as the mean 
of sloping or pitched roofs, and the top of flat roofs. 



All parapet walls should be figured solid. The sum total 
will be the cubage of the building. 

Whenever unusual conditions prevail requiring rock 
excavation, piling, retaining walls, extraordinary foun- 
dation work, sheet-piling, or special work in excess of 
the ordinary foundation work required for a building 
on a level tract of firm bearing soil, these conditions 
should be taken into account and figured separately 
from the normal cubage. They are usually listed 
under the heading of abnormal costs. 

With one-story buildings having no basements, ex- 
cept boiler-room space, and the main floor level about 
two or three feet above grade level, there is a great di- 
versity of opinion as to the method to be employed. 
The mooted question is regarding the space between 
the floor and the top of the ground. Having built a 
number of schools of this type, the author is of the 
opinion that the most reliable method is to figure the 
foundations, walls and piers solid to the under side of 
floor construction, and then add the cubic contents of 
the remaining part of the building as in the two- or 
three-story structures. To include the space under the 
floor the same as that above it is misleading, as no finish 
is used below the floor. 

Mr. Edward C. Baldwin, Secretary Massachusetts 
State Board of Education, in a very able paper pre- 
sented before the National Association of School Ac- 
counting Officers at St. Louis, May 19, 1918, recom- 
mended that " the cubical contents of the building 
should be defined to mean the cubical contents of the 
space or the rooms actually used or available for school 
purposes, such for example as classrooms, coatrooms, 
assembly halls, corridors, stairways, playrooms, offices, 
lunchrooms, sanitaries, storerooms, engine and boiler 
rooms, coal rooms, stack rooms, fan rooms, etc., but 
should not include attic spaces, or other parts of a build- 
ing which cannot be used for school or its related work." 1 
This is an admirable suggestion for purposes of com- 
parison after the building is completed, but for prelim- 
inary cost purposes, it seems to the author as though it 
is more valuable to compute the cost by a unit cost 
per cubic foot multiplied by the total cubage of the 
building, plus the cost of any special work. 

Types of Construction. — After having the educational 
requirements established and recorded by the pre- 
liminary drawings and the cubage obtained, the next 
step should be to determine upon the unit cost per cubic 
foot. Before doing this it is necessary to know what 
type of construction shall be adopted, what system of 
heating and ventilation is to be installed, and the quality 
and finish of the other building installations. For se- 
quence the types of construction should be classified 



1 American School Board Journal, 1018. 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



77 



into grades adopted by the building laws of cities. In 
some cities they are rated numerically as Class i, 2, 3, 
mill, and ordinary frame construction; and in others 
they are rated alphabetically as Class A, B, C, mill, 
ordinary and frame construction. For purposes herein 
they will be graded alphabetically. 

Class A . — Class A is a building built with a steel 
frame supporting all walls, floors, and roofs, and the 
structural parts, such as partitions, exterior, and in- 
terior walls, floors, stairs, etc., built of fire-resisting 
materials except that the finish floors, windows, trim, 
and doors may be of wood construction. Schools not 
over three stories high would not necessarily have the 
exterior walls supported by the steel frame, as they 
could with safety and economy be self-supporting and 
also support the adjacent floor loads. Buildings of 
more than three stories in height and built within the 
fire limits, in order to comply with the building ordi- 
nances of many cities, are required to have the windows, 
trim, and doors of metal or metal covered. 

Class B. — Buildings of this class are built with the 
walls of masonry or concrete supporting the adjacent 
floor loads, and with reinforced concrete columns sup- 
porting the interior portions of the floors; the floors, 
roofs, and structural parts of reenforced concrete, ma- 
sonry, or other fireproof construction. Doors, trim, 
windows, and floors are of wood. For school buildings, 
this class might be extended so that interior partitions 
between rooms for defined areas (about 2500 square 
feet) could be built of wood studs and wood lath for the 
acoustical quality these materials give to the classrooms. 
The partitions inclosing these areas and the corridor 
partitions should be of fireproof materials. 

Class C. — For schools, this class of buildings should 
be defined as having the exterior walls of masonry or 
reenforced concrete ; the corridor floors and stairways 
of reenforced concrete, supported by steel, cast iron, or 
reenforced concrete columns; the remaining floors of 
wood construction ; the interior walls of wood studs and 
wood lath, except the corridor walls, which should be of 
metal lath construction, and the floors, trim, etc., etc., of 
wood. It should be noted that this is somewhat differ- 
ently defined from that of the usual Class C construction 
found in building ordinances ; and it is specially men- 
tioned as suggesting a safe middle course for the building 
of schools, when classes A and B are found to be too ex- 
pensive. This type is favorable for school buildings out- 
side the fire limits and not more than three stories high. 

Class D. — This class differs from Class C only in 
not having the walls and floors of the corridors and the 
stair wells of fireproof construction. In this class the 
wood floors may be supported by a steel frame, a con- 



crete frame, a timber frame or by wood studs. The 
exterior walls are of masonry construction. This type 
of construction for schools should be limited to buildings 
of two stories. 

Class E or Frame Construction. — A Class E build- 
ing is constructed entirely of wood. A school of frame 
construction should not be more than two stories high. 1 

Classification of the Heating and Ventilation. — 
Having classified the construction, the next step should 
be to classify the permanent mechanical installations, 
such as the heating and ventilation systems. If they 
are graded numerically, it will avoid confusion with the 
grading of the types of construction. 

Heating and Ventilation, Grade I. — This grade 
includes a steam boiler plant, mechanical stokers, 
or oil burning systems, the dual system of heating and 
ventilating, that is, radiators and the air of the plenum 
system tempered, air washers, temperature, and hu- 
midity controlled by thermostats, and vacuum pumps 
for the return system. 

Heating and Ventilation, Grade II. — The same as 
Grade I without the direct radiation. In this grade, 
the heating of the rooms is done by means of heating 
the air supply to such temperature that the heated air 
comfortably warms the rooms. It should be carefully 
recorded whether or not the system includes an air 
washer and mechanical stokers, as these installations 
affect the cost of the plant. 

Heating and Ventilation, Grade III. — This grade 
consists of a hot air furnace, replacing the steam plant 
mentioned in Grade I and II and which heats the build- 
ing similarly to the means of Grade II. There is a 
temperature control but no air washer or mechanical 
stokers to this system. It should be noted that this 
method of heating is very inferior to I and II. 

Heating and Ventilation, Grade IV. — This grade 
consists of a steam plant furnishing direct radiation 
only to the classrooms ; such rooms as the assembly 
hall and large study room are supplied with tempered 
air. It also includes temperature control. Like Grade 
III such a system is applicable only to sections of the 
country having climates where open windows are per- 
missible the year round. 

Sanitary Installations. — It is assumed that in this day 
and age only good sanitary fixtures would be used, conse- 
quently there would be little or no difference in the total 
costs of the different classes of construction, unless a septic 
sewage system or a water supply system are required. 
Then the cost of these items should be taken into account. 

Electrical Installations. — The principal items to 
take account of here are whether or not the lighting 
fixtures should be installed at the time of construction, 



1 In classifying the different types of construction it has been assumed that for all classes the boiler rooms are of fireproof construction. 



78 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



and should program clocks and bells, fire alarm sys- 
tem and intercommunicating telephones be provided. 
It is assumed that all wiring shall be of the metal con- 
duit method, and comply with the rules of the National 
Board of Fire Underwriters. 

Classification of the Educational Grades. — A further 
classification of building is necessary to fully compre- 
hend and solve fully the problem of costs. For it is 
evident to those at all familiar with schools that the 
senior inclusive, or cosmopolitan high school with built- 
in equipment will cost more per cubic foot than the 
low elementary school of the same class of construction. 

Any number of classifications of schools might be 
formed, but the main point is to keep these somewhat 
technical matters simplified so that it is not difficult 
for the layman to follow the modus operandi and know 
how to act intelligently and logically when the facts 
are placed before him. 

The following is suggested as a simple classification : 

The Elementary School. 

i . Lower elementary, grades I to VI inclusive without 
assembly hall. 

2. Same with assembly hall. 

3. Upper elementary grades, I to VIII inclusive, 
with rooms for cooking, sewing, manual training, and 
assembly hall. If the school has a gymnasium or a 
swimming-pool special mention should be made of the 
facts. But as a general rule the average upper ele- 
mentary school does not have these features. 

Junior High School. 

The High School. — It is not so simple a matter 
to classify the high school, as secondary educational 
systems are constantly changing by the additions of 
new subjects or courses and consequently new and 
different rooms and equipment. The classical or 
purely academic high school containing classrooms, 
assembly hall, gymnasium, library, and laboratories for 
the elementary sciences is fast being supplanted by the 
inclusive high school with all kinds of shops, labora- 
tories, rooms for household arts and commercial in- 
struction in addition to the rooms or departments in- 
cluded within the scope of the classical high school. 
Therefore, any classification will require supplementary 
data regarding the rooms for special study or work. 
Furthermore, the method of handling study classes, 
whether in special study halls or in classrooms under 
the supervision of the class teacher, is quite likely to 
affect the plan and the cubic contents of the building; 
it would be well to have the method fully understood 
before determining on a unit cost. 

However, the following is offered as a suggestion as to 
classification to be amplified according to the prevailing 
conditions. 



1. Classical high school. 

2. Commercial high school. 

3. Technical high school. 

4. Inclusive or cosmopolitan high school embody- 
ing 1, 2, 3, and 

5. Vocational or trade schools. 

6. High school with dormitories. 
(See Elko, Nevada, High School plan.) 

Having thus classified the construction, the heating 
and ventilating systems, and the types of buildings, 
for use it is possible then to proceed to quote costs per 
cubic foot from work executed prior to the war as a basis 
from which to work. It should be borne in mind that 
immediate post-war prices and conditions are unstable 
and will remain so for some time. Consequently the 
unit figures given below are based on ante- war costs. 
Until the world has readjusted itself to the new order 
of conditions, reasonable margins for safety should be 
allowed in all estimating. The fluctuations and prices 
of both labor and materials must also be considered. 
The furniture and equipment should not be included 
in obtaining the net cost of the building, nor should 
the walks, approaches, grading, and landscape work be 
included, as exceptionally expensive work may be re- 
quired for filling, surfacing, and planting. Therefore 
the grading should be figured separately. 

The following tables have been compiled from a 
collection of data dating back to 1910. 

Table No. 1 is a compilation from the school records 
of the different localities. It should be noted that cer- 
tain classes of construction are lower in one section 
than in another, while another class of construction 
in the same locality is higher in unit cost due to the 
remoteness of the structural materials from the source 
of supply. This also accounts for the range of unit 
costs given in Table No. 2. 

In like manner, it should be remembered that heat- 
ing and ventilating will vary in cost according to the 
climatic and seasonal conditions of the different locali- 
ties. For instance, heating should cost more in Massa- 
chusetts, New York, Illinois, and Missouri than it does 
in California. This is somewhat true of plumbing as 
well, for less covering of pipes against frost is re- 
quired in the last locality than in any of the previously 
mentioned states. 

Due to the wider use of the high school over that of 
the elementary, the unit costs of the electrical work are 
correspondingly higher. Also the electrical installa- 
tions in the shops, laboratories, etc., of the junior, tech- 
nical, inclusive, and vocational high schools will cause 
the cost of this work to run considerably higher than 
that installed in the elementary school, or in the classi- 
cal or the commercial high school. 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



It is very important that the reader should remember 
that any table of costs has only a relative value. Prices 
change daily, and conditions governed by labor, trans- 
portation, etc. will materially affect the cost of build- 
ing. Therefore the writer submits the following tables, 
with this caution of their use. 



Table No. i. — Approximate Costs (in Cents) per Cubic Foot 
for Class A Buildings with Class I Heating and Ventilating 
and Full Electrical Installation. 



Locality 


Cost per 


Cost of 
Gen. Work 


H. & V. 


Plumbing 


Elec. 


Boston 


22 tO 2$i 


l8 tO 20fi 


2 to 3* 


i.i to i.st 


.8 to i. os! 


Chicago .... 


17 to 20* 


13 to 16* 


2 to 3 * 


i to i.st 


.25 to At 


St. Louis .... 


17 tO 20* 


13 to 16* 


2\ to 4 * 


i tO 1.2," 


itoi* 


San Francisco . . 


19 to 23* 


16 to 19* 


i to 1.5* 


.7 to i. 3 t 


itoi* 



Class B Buildings Class I (Heating and Ventilating) and Full 
Electrical Equlpment. 



Boston 


iqt 


024* 


i 7 to 20* 


2 to 3* 


i.i to i.st 


.8 to 1.9* 


Chicago .... 


16 1 


oiq* 


13 to ist 


2 tOSt 


i.o to i.st 


.25 to .4* 


St. Louis . . . . 


16 1 


20t 


12 to ist 


2j to 4 t 


| tO I.2t 


itoit 


San Francisco . . 


i6t 


019* 


12 to 15* 


i to 1.5* 


•7 to i.st 


Hoi* 



Class C Buildings Class 77 (Heating and Ventilating) and Full 
Electrical Equipment. 



Boston . . . 
Chicago . . 
St. Louis . . 
San Francisco 



17 to 24* 


14 to 20* 


1.7 to 2.7* 


Same as 


15 to 18* 


12 to is* 


1.6 to 2.8* 




15 to 18* 


13 to 15* 


1.8 to 3* 




14 to 17* 


ni to 14* 


i toi.s* 





Table 2. — Approximate Costs (in Cents) per Cubic Foot for 
Different Grades of School Building Construction. 



Type of School 



1 Low elementary wil 

out assembly hall 

2 Same with assembly 



hall 



3 Upper elementary . 

4 Junior high school . 

5 Classical high school 

6 Commercial high school 

7 Technical high school . 

8 Inclusive high school . 

9 Vocational or trade 

to Dormitories .... 



Class A Class 



Class C Class D Class E 



as there are 
very few ex- 
amples of 
this type of 



Table 3. — Approximate Cost (in Cents) per Cubic Foot for 
Different Grades of Heating and Ventilating Systems for 
Schools. 



Type of School 


Grade I 

Complete 


Grade II 
Plenum 


Grade III 
Furnace 


Grade IV 
Radiation 


Elementary 

High school 


2 to 3* 
1.5 to 2.5* 
f Should 
] not install 
[plenum 


1.5 to 2.5* 
1 to 2* 


0.8 to 1.5* 
0.7 to 1* 

1.2 to it 


0.7 to 1.2* 
o. S to 1.5* 

1. toi.sji 



Table 4. — Approximate Costs (en Cents) per Cubic Foot for 
Plumbing and Electrical Installations en the Different 
Classes of Educational Buildings. 



Type of School 


Plumbing 


Electrical 


Elemen 


i to 1.2 
1 to 1.3 
1 to 1.3 
i to 1.4 
i to 1.5 
f to 1.5 








Classical or commercial high school . . . 
Technical high school ......... 

Inclusive high school 

Vocational high school 


I to 1.2 
i to 1.9 







Note: — The increased cost in building in 1920 is approximately 
150 per cent higher than in 1914. 

There should be some check on the cost per cubic 
foot method in order to insure against a low unit cost 
per cubic foot and at the same time a high cubage per 
pupil. The compact or closed type of school will show 
a smaller cubage per pupil, while the open or spread- 
out type will require a greater allowance. The one- 
story schools will show a decided increase over that of 
the two- or three-story schools. 

The compact elementary school with classrooms 
and a very few accessory or related rooms will require 
from 600 to 800 cubic feet per pupil, while the open type 
will need from 900 to 1100 cubic feet, showing a wide 
divergence. Similarly the two types of high schools 
will show a wide variance in cubage per pupil. In five 
recently built high schools constructed in different sec- 
tions of the country, the lowest cubage was 1200 cubic 
feet per pupil, while the highest was slightly more than 
2700 cubic feet per pupil. Naturally the cost per cubic 
foot was much lower in the latter. Yet from the two 
plans, the school with the higher cubage per pupil con- 
tained more rooms for educational and physical ad- 
vantages than the high school of the lowest cubage. 

The writer has built a number of one- and two-story 
schools of the Class C construction which cost between 
eleven and fourteen cents per cubic foot, but they were 
of the open type, and their unit cost is not recorded in 
Table No. 2, as such figures undoubtedly would be mis- 
leading, the cost per pupil being about normal. 

Inasmuch as the tendency is towards the open type 
of plan for both the elementary and high school, the 
data at hand are not sufficient to warrant establishing a 
limit to the cubage per pupil. Also the hygienic ad- 
vantages of the open plan for sunshine and natural 
ventilation are so pronounced that it is hard to believe, 
notwithstanding the desire to economize, that the closed 
scheme would be preferable to the open type when land 
space is available for the latter. 

However, when the combined floor area of the rooms 
for instruction is appreciably less than 50 per cent of 
the total floor area of the building, then it is time to 
look for extravagance or waste in the planning of areas. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Rooms for instruction should include classrooms, labora- 
tories, library, shops, home economics rooms, rooms for 
commercial work, drawing, and any rooms used for 
instruction. The question naturally arises, are as- 
sembly halls, gymnasia, swimming-pools, etc., in the 
category of instruction rooms? Generally they should 
not be included, but should be classified as rooms re- 
lated to instruction rooms. 

Cost of Equipment. — It is most essential that a re- 
liable estimate be obtained, showing the cost of the 
furniture and equipment, before school boards establish 
a figure covering the cost of the proposed school. Very 
often this important item is overlooked until the build- 
ing is completed, and then it is found necessary either 
to call for additional funds or to install worn-out and 
disfigured furniture and equipment entirely inadequate 
to meet the needs of the school. Stock furniture can 
be purchased more cheaply than it can be designed and 
specially made. And undoubtedly it will be better built 
and generally of a finer design. But equipment for 
science laboratories, household arts, library bookcases, 
and similar equipment should be designed by the archi- 
tect, in collaboration with the heads of the different 
departments, as the needs and requirements of each 
school can be accommodated better by this method 
than by attempting to make the school meet the require- 
ments of stock equipment. 

The following preliminary estimate was prepared by 
the writer for the Board of Education of a city of 20,000 
inhabitants in California, in February, 191 7, prior to 
the bond election for a new high school. This enabled 
the Board to go before the electors with definite data re- 
garding the proposed building. This, together with the' 
preliminary drawings, demonstrated a businesslike pro- 
cedure which has had a marked influence upon other 
communities. At least the " rough-shod," hazardous 
guess is absent. 

It should be carefully noted that this estimate applied 
to a distinct group of buildings for a community hav- 
ing a number of special problems involved. For an- 
other city or district, distinctly different conditions 
might govern the plan, the amount and character of 
the equipment, and the materials entering into the 
construction. Consequently the unit costs and the 
prices quoted would naturally change. The data are 
submitted to indicate the necessity of having a thoroughly 
prepared estimate of the cost of the furniture and 
equipment, without which it is impossible to clearly 
present, the facts of the case to the people so that they 
may vote intelligently on the expenditure. It will be 
found more favorable to the building of schools if people 
are enlightened to the fullest extent on these matters 
prior to the time of taking the first important step. 



Estimated Cost of Building and Equipment of Proposed 
High School for City of (X) 



I Buildings Only 










February 


2, 1917 


Description 


Size 


1 


w 


I 
36' 


Cubage 


si 


Total 

Estimated 

Cost 


A Main building .... 
Contains : 

Principal's suite 
Vice principal's suite 
Women teachers' rest 


6 5 'X25o' 


32.500 


585,000 


$0.16 


$93,600.00 


Men teachers' room 

16 Classrooms 

School paper room 

Library 

Reading and magazine 
















Commercial Depart- 
















Typewriting room 
Bookkeeping room 
















B Assembly hall .... 
Contains : 

Auditorium, 65'Xioo' 
Stage, 60' X30' 
Seats 1000 people 
Music department 








36' 


298,800 




41,832.00 


C Science building . . . 
Contains : 

2 Chemistry labora- 


70'XiSo' 


1 


io.soo 


20 


210,000 


0.14 


29,400.00 


1 Chemistry lecture 
















1 Store room for chem- 
ical supplies 
1 dark room 
1 Biology laboratory 
1 Store room for bio- 
logical supplies 
1 Physics laboratory 
1 Small laboratory and 

1 Physics lecture room 
1 General science lab- 
oratory 
1 General science store- 
















D Shop building .... 
Contains : 

1 Recitation room 
1 Bench and lathe 


7o'X I5 o' 


1 


10,500' 


2o' 


210,000 


0.14 


29,400.00 


1 Machine shop 

1 Mechanical drawing 
















1 Freehand drawing 
















1 Auto shop 
















E Home economics building 
Contains 

1 Domestic science 


70' X 80' 


1 


5,600' 


20' 


112,000 


0.14 


15,680.00 


1 Domestic arts and 
















F Gymnasium 

Contains 

1 Boys' locker room 
1 Girls' locker room 
1 Boys' shower room 
1 Girls' shower room 
1 Main hall 








33' 


165,000 




23,000.00 


G Cafeteria 

Contains : 

Kitchen and service 
space sufficient to 
accommodate 312 


52' X 84' 




4.368' 


20' 


87,360 


0.13 


11,356.00 


H Miscellaneous .... 
Landscaping, planting, 

other non-comparable 

Total cost of buildings 
without equipment . . 














13,000.00 
$257,268.00 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



II Estimated Cost of Equipment 



Main building 
Principal's suite 
i Roll-top desk . . . 
i Desk chair .... 
S Visitors' chairs @ $4.oc 



i Rug 



Center table 

i Filing cabinet .... 
Vice principal's suite 
i Flat-top desk .... 

1 Revolving chair . . . 

2 Visitors' chairs @ $6.00 . 
1 Drop-lid typewriter desk 
1 Typewriter chair . . . 
1 6' library table .... 

Filing cases 



1 Rug 



Women teachers' rest room 

4 Wicker chairs @ $g.oo . . 
3 Wicker rockers @ $10.00 

1 Table 

1 Writing desk 

1 Rug 

Men teachers' rest room 

Same as above 

Classrooms 

30 Movable chairs @ $7.50 . . 
1 Revolving chair .... 
1 Visitors' chair 

1 Teacher's desk 

16 Classrooms 

School paper room 

2 Flat-top desks @ $20.00 . . 

2 Chairs @ $6.00 .... 

3 6' tables @ $25.00 . . . 
Library 

S3'Xs' Tables® $20.00 . . 
30 Chairs @ $6.00 .... 
1 Book exchange desk . . . 
1 Revolving chair .... 
Note : Bookshelves will be built it 
Reading and magazine room 

1 Newspaper file 

3 3'X5' tables 



8 Chai) 



% $6.o< 



Commercial Department 
Typewriting Room 
40 Typewriter desks @ $25.00 
40 Typewriter chairs @ $2.50 . 
1 Instructor's desk .... 
1 Instructor's chair .... 
Note: No machines included. 
Bookkeeping room 

35 Bookkeeping desks @ $25.00 
35 Bookkeeping chairs @ $2.50 
1 Instructor's desk .... 
1 Instructor's chair .... 
Total for main building . . 
Assembly hall 
Auditorium 

1,000 chairs @ $4.50 . . . 

12 Platform chairs @ $7.00 

1 Pedestal stand 

Stage curtains 

Stage scenery (1 set), . . . 

Music department 

Allow 

Note: Piano not included 
Science Building 

2 Chemistry laboratories (a), $2,5. 
1 Chemistry lecture room 

1 Instructor's table .... 
48 Chairs @ $4.00 .... 



Science Building — Contim 
1 Biology laboratory 
Allow 



1 Physics laboratory 

Allow 

1 Physics lecture room 

1 Instructor's table 

48 Seats @ $4.00 

1 General Science laboratory 

Allow , . . 

Shop Building 
Recitation room 
36 Movable chairs @ $7.50 . . . . 

1 Instructor's desk 

1 Instructor's chair 

Bench and lathe room 
18 Woodworking benches @ $50.00 . . 
6 13" X55" Lathes @ $90.00 . . . . 
6 \ Horse-power motors @ $40.00 . . 
1 36" Band saw with 5 horse-powe 

1 Universal bench saw with 5 horse- 

1 30" Planer with 15 horse-power motor 
1 16" Jointer with 5 horse-power motor 
1 Sander with 5 horse-power motor 
1 Grinder with \ horse-power motor . 
Forge shop 
6 Pair forges @ $130.00 . . . . ' . 
1 Exhauster with 7} horse-power moto: 
1 Blower with 2 horse-power motor 

1 Smoke separator 

12 Sets forge-shop tools, anvils, and ac- 



Machine shop 

8 I4"X72" Lathes with motor drives 
@ $r,o76.oo 

I 16" Shaper with 3 horse-power motor 

1 3°"X3o"Xio" Planer with 5 horse- 
Machine shop (continued) 

1 22" Drill press with 1 horse-power 

1 Universal milling machine, motor 

1 Sensitive Drill, motor driven . . . 

1 Emery wheel grinder 

1 Hack saw 

Mechanical Drawing Room 

24 Benches @ $12.00 

24 Stools @ $3.00 

1 Instructor's desk 

1 Instructor's chair 

Freehand drawing room 

Same equipment as above 

Auto shop 

1 2-ton chain hoist 

Home economics building 



Allow 



Gym, 

400 Double tier lockers, 
Cafeteria 

Kitchen equipment . . 
50 Tables @ $10.00 . 

312 Chairs @ $2.00 . . 
Recapitulation 

Cost of buildings . . 

Cost of landscape work, 

Cost of equipment . , 



Note: — Cost of equipment in 1920 is 150 to 250 per cent higher than in 1917. 

Comparative Costs and Records. — It is heartily mating and checking up the cost of new plants. Noth- 

recommended that accurate records of unit costs of ing will so quickly indicate waste and unwarranted 

school buildings be kept by boards of education for the extravagance as a chart having such data in a ready 

valuable information these records provide for esti- reference form. There is no doubt in the writer's opinion 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



that at least a tenth more schools could be built for the 
money expended in the last fifteen years if such in- 
telligible data were available for reference. It should 
be observed further that unless the data are reliable 
they are worse than useless. 

The following are two forms of tables of informa- 
tion and cost which should be filled in at the comple- 
tion of all new buildings and kept in the records of the 
local board and in the office of the State Superintendent 
of Education. 

TABLE NO. A 
i. Name of School 

2. Location Street City State 

3. Date — work commenced Mo Yr.* 

completed Mo Yr 

4. Educational class 

5. Class of construction 

6. System of heating and ventilation 

7. Total cost Normal cost $ 

Abnormal cost $ 

8. Cubage 

0. Cost per cubic ft. (a) Based on total cost $ 

(b) Based on normal cost $ 

10. Total floor area 

11. Cost per sq. ft. (a) Based on total cost $ 

(b) Based on normal cost $ 

12. Pupil capacity 

Cost per pupil (a) Based on total cost $ 

(b) Based on normal cost $ 

Static capacity 

Cost per static unit $ 

Note: Enter all items and amounts of abnormal costs below. 

TABLE NO. B 

Name and grade of school 

Location 

Year completed 

General description 



13 



15 



Subdivision of 


Costs of 


Contracts 




Title of Contract 


Amount 


°W 


^r 


Cost per 




General contract 
Heating and ventilat- 
ing 
Plumbing 
Electrical 
Inspection 
Engineer's fee 
Architect's fee 


$ 


$ 


$ 


$ 




Sub-totals 
Furniture and equip- 
ment 
Landscape work 
Any abnormal cost 
(specify) 












Sub-total 
Cost of site 
Number of acres or 

square feet 
Cost per acre $ 

or square foot 












Grand total 













Static Capacity. — In a paper read before the Na- 
tional Association of School Accounting Officers on 
May 16, 191 7, Mr. C. L. Wooldridge, then Superin- 
tendent of School Buildings, Pittsburgh, Pa., has clearly 
defined the most accurate method of comparing the 
cost of school buildings that has come to the writer's 
attention, and that part defining static capacity is 
quoted below, with his permission. 

" To get this on a fair comparable basis we must find 
a term which expresses capacity and which can be ap- 
plied and used to measure every part of a school build- 
ing which has capacity. 

" To meet this need I recommended that the term 
Pupil Capacity be permanently abandoned and that we 
substitute therefor the term Static Capacity. 

Static Capacity of Building "X" 



Classrooms 

Coatrooms 

Assembly room 

Kindergarten 

Kindergarten coatroom 

Kindergarten workroom 

Ungraded room 

Cooking laboratory 

Cooking laboratory coatroom . . . . 

Model dining room 

Sewing laboratory 

Fitting room 

Sewing laboratory coatroom . . . . 

Model bedroom 

Domestic science lecture room . . . . 

Bench room 

Bench room coatroom 

Wood-finishing room 

Drafting room 

Drafting room coatroom 

Manual training lecture room . . . . 

Blue-print room 

Boys' playroom, 15 square feet per pupil 
Girls' playroom, 15 square feet per pupil 

Community rooms 

Water-closets 

Urinals 

Washstands 

Drinking-fountains 

Slop sinks 

General office 

Private office 

Teachers' locker room 

Medical inspectors' office 

Book storeroom 

Building contains, static units .... 



Total 
Capacity 



Cost, $187,346.16 . t t - •* 

— = »5S-47 per static unit 

Static units, 3377 

" By static capacity I mean the total capacity of pupils, 
teachers, and clerks as applied to every room and de- 
partment in a school building. For instance, a standard 
classroom on a fifteen square foot basis will accommo- 



COST OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



date fifty pupils and one teacher, therefore its static 
capacity is fifty-one. A cloakroom large enough to 
place the coat hooks far enough apart so that no pupil's 
coat will touch the coat on the next hook has a definite 
static capacity. A toilet room has a static capacity 
equal to the total number of fixtures. An auditorium 
with twenty-inch seats placed thirty inches back to back 
and not more than thirteen seats between aisles has a 
definite static capacity. 

" In this way, it is possible to formulate a clean-cut 
rule for measuring the static capacity of any room in a 
school building. We will now measure the static ca- 
pacity of a school building. 

"We now have a rule which really considers every 
element entering into the capacity of the school building. 

"In advancing this rule, I do not wish to be under- 
stood that my application of it as illustrated above is 
absolutely right. I merely wish to advance the idea 
that everything in a building which has to do with its 
capacity should be considered, and I believe with more 
careful consideration and study such a rule can be suc- 
cessfully worked out and uniformly applied. 

"A complete report for purposes of comparison on a 
school building would be somewhat as follows : 

Comparable Data 
School "X." 
District, Pittsburgh. 
Year built, 1914. 

Educational class, upper elementary. 
Construction class, first grade. 
Cubage, 1,094,696 cubic feet. 
Static capacity, 3377 units. 







Cost per 
Cv. Ft. 


Cost per 
Static Unit 


Cost of general work 

Cost of heating and ventilating 

Cost of plumbing 

Cost of electrical installations . . 


$142,091.98 
29,038.00 
io,543-33 
5,672.8s 

$187,346.16 


$0.1298 
0.0265 
0.0096 
0.0052 


$42.08 
8-59 
3.12 
1.68 


Total 


$0.1711 


$55-47 



Non-Comparable Data 




Cost of landscaping 

Cost of abnormal foundations . . 
Cost of fixed equipment .... 
Cost of architectural service . . . 

Cost of inspection 

Total 


$7,547-oo 
8,169.00 
10,162.45 
12,183.73 
3,5i5-6i 
$41,577-79 




Total cost 


$228,923.95 



"On the assumption that the above rules were in gen- 
eral use, I still feel that comparative costs would not be 
reliable or authentic unless the rules were applied fairly 
and impartially. It is possible to apply any rule in a 
matter of this sort, and by slight variations in its ap- 
plication to get considerable difference in the results." 1 



For the following report the author is indebted to 
Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect, and Chairman of the 
Committee on " Standardization of School Building 
Measurements and Cubical Contents," appointed by 
the American Institute of Architects. This report 
has been approved by authorized committees from the 
following organizations : 

American Institute of Architects, 

National Association of School Accounting Officers, 

Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse Plan- 
ning, and Construction, National Education Association. 

THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS 

Report of the Committee on School Building Measure- 
ments 
[To the Fifty-second Annual Convention] 

The Committee on School Building Measurements submits 
the following report : 

For the purpose of obtaining comparable data upon the edu- 
cational utility and cost of school buildings, they shall be classi- 
fied, measured, and defined as follows : 

Educational Classification: School Buildings shall be classi- 
fied, educationally, as — 
Lower Elementary, 
Upper Elementary, 
High, or Secondary. 

Lower Elementary: Shall be defined as a building containing 
class and kindergarten rooms, together with the usual accessory 
rooms, such as principal's office, teachers' rooms, playrooms, 
toilets, etc., and used for the lower elementary grades only. 

Should a school building of this type be provided with as- 
sembly room, gymnasium, or other special rooms it shall fall 
into the next classification. 

Upper Elementary: Shall be defined as a building contain- 
ing lower or upper elementary grades, and in addition to the 
regular class and accessory rooms, an assembly hall, gymnasium, 
and such special rooms as may be included for upper grade or special 
work, which may include elementary science, elementary in- 
dustrial training and household arts. 

This classification would thus include the Junior High School, the 
Elementary Industrial or other types of special elementary schools. 

High or Secondary: Shall be defined as a building contain- 
ing classrooms, recitation rooms, laboratories, and such spe- 
cial rooms as are necessary for classical, technical, industrial, 
household arts, normal, agricultural, or other purposes re- 
quired for secondary or junior college education. 

Construction Classification 

Type A. — A building constructed entirely of fire-resistive 
materials, including its roofs, windows, doors, floors, and finish. 

Type B. — A building of fire-resistive construction in its 
walls, floors, stairways and ceilings, but with wood finish, wood 
or composition floor surface, and wood roof construction over 
fire-resistive ceiling. 

Type C. — A building with masonry walls, fire-resistive cor- 
ridors and stairways, but with ordinary construction otherwise, 
i.e. combustible floors, partitions, roofs and finish. 



1 American School Board Journal, July, 191 7. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Type D. — A building with masonry walls, but otherwise 
ordinary or joist construction and wood finish. 

Type E. — A frame building constructed with wood above 
foundation with or without slate or other semi-fireproof ma- 
terial on roof. 

Note: Should buildings of any of the above classifications 
be erected without complete ventilating systems or other me- 
chanical equipment, due note should be made of such fact in re- 
porting its cost data. 

Cost Units 

To determine the educational utility of the building, obtain the 
cost per pupil. 

To determine construction cost of building, obtain the cost 
per cubic foot. 

The divisor to be used to determine the cost per pupil, shall 
be determined by the number of pupils normally accommodated 
in rooms designed for classes only. In arriving at the number of 
pupils, special rooms are to be figured at the actual number of 
pupils accommodated for one class period only. Auditorium 
or assembly rooms are to be ignored, but gymnasium may be 
figured for one or two classes, as the accommodation may pro- 
vide. No gymnasium, however, shall be accredited with two 
classes, if below 40 by 70 feet in size. 

Cost per cubic foot. — To obtain the cube of a school build- 
ing, multiply the area of the outside of the building at the first- 
floor level by the height of the building from six inches below the 
general basement floor to the mean height of the roof. Para- 
pet walls, stacks and other projections beyond the mean height 
of the roof, as well as balconies and porches not contributing 
to the actual usable floor of the building, are to be ignored. 

Where portions of the building are built to different heights, 
each portion is to be taken as an individual unit and the rule 
as above applied. 

Cost Items 

The cost of school buildings shall be divided into four general 
items : 



First. — Cost of land and grading. 

Second. — Cost of building construction. 

Third. — Cost of furniture and fixed equipment. 

Fourth. — Cost of architects', engineers', brokers' and super- 
vision services. 

First. — Cost of land and grading should include the cost of 
the site and the necessary grading to place it in condition to 
receive the building. Should the site be abnormal and require 
piling, filling, quarrying, or other unusual expenditures to place 
it in normal condition to receive the building, such costs are also 
to be charged up against the site and not the building. 

Second. — Cost of building should include : 

(a) General contract and any sub-contracts pertaining to the 
general construction of the building, as, for example, excavating, 
masonry, fireproofing, steel construction, carpentry, cabinet 
work, sheet metal work, roofing, painting, etc. 

(b) All contracts for electrical work, plumbing, vacuum clean- 
ing, sewage disposal, heating and ventilating, clock systems, 
blackboards, elevators, or any other contract for any part of the 
building not included above, necessary to complete the same, 
ready for occupancy. 

(c) The cost of all site improvements, such as walks, drives, 
yard paving, fencing, and landscape gardening. 

Third. — Cost of furniture and fixed equipment: 

(a) Should include cost of all portable furniture and cabinets ; 
all laboratory and shop equipment, and all other equipment 
which would not be classified as "Educational Supplies." 

(b) All decorations, including special painting or decoration 
of any kind that may not be included in the general painting 
contract. Hangings, rugs, pictures, casts, and other forms of 
decorations furnished at the time of the occupancy of the build- 
ing which are not classified as "Educational Supplies." 

Fourth. — Cost of architects', engineers', brokers', and super- 
vision services should include the cost of all plans and specifications, 
architects', engineers', landscape gardening and supervision and 
all other experts' services and expenses. 

William B. Ittner, Chairman. 



CHAPTER V 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 

By E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California 

Organization of Elementary School. School Site. General Arrangement of Building. Cleanliness. Height of Buildings. 
Standardization of Classrooms. Special Rooms. Complete Equipment. Physical Education. Health and Sanitation. Arrange- 
ment of Classrooms. Visual Instruction. Assembly Hall. Office and Library. Elementary Course of Study. 



The Organization of the Elementary School. — f The 
building of school buildings, like most other kinosof 
building, has usually been carried on without very much 
consideration as to what is to be done in the building 
after it is completed. Consequently the buildings are 
just about as well adapted to the work that is to be car- 
ried on in them as are kitchens and office buildings. 
Of later years occasionally a superintendent or a prin- 
cipal has been consulted in the making of school build- 
ing plans and as often his advice has been rejected as it 
has been accepted.^] Much more often the advice of 
teachers regarding planning of the interior of a class- 
room has been heeded. Because of the fact that the 
"advice and counsel of superintendents, principals, and 
teachers has not usually been sought, very little study 
or thought has been devoted by them to the problem of 
school planning, and consequently most of them are not 
ready with any practical advice. Y The first thing and 
the last thing that a school architect or a board of edu- 
cation should do in the planning and erecting of the 
school building is to seek the advice and counsel of those 
who are to conduct the school in that building after it 
is erected. 

The adaptation of the building to the school organi- 
zation is more important than any other problem con- 
nected with school building. The waste of time and 
effort and nervous energy due to careless planning or 
lack of planning is everywhere noticeable to one fa- 
miliar with the organization and operation of schools.) 
I A School Site. — The size and location of the school 
site and the location of the building thereon vitally 
affect the operation of the school. A playground of 
proper size, properly drained and properly arranged, 
will to a large degree administer itself. A playground 
that is too small to accommodate the school or which 
is not properly adapted to play purposes distracts the 
attention of principals and teachers from the planning 
of recreation activities or other school work. Conse- 



quently, for administrative reasons, it is important 
to have the school building properly located, with abun- 
dant play space available for both boys and girls, and 
this play space properly prepared for its purpose. The 
school building should be near the center of the north 
side of the grounds so that there may be during the winter 
season the driest and sunniest part of the school grounds 
available for play and a fair division of the grounds be- 
tween boys and girls. There should be at least one- 
fourth acre for every classroom. This may seem ex- 
cessive in cities, but our best school systems have brought 
themselves to it. No city should locate a school build- 
ing on less than five acres. No one can foretell how 
soon the day will arrive when there will be a fifteen- or 
twenty-room building on that site. No effort should 
be spared to secure the erection of school buildings 
away from the main arteries of traffic. No one can 
possibly foretell street development of the future, but 
it is possible for the authorities at least to avoid locating 
the school building on the main arteries of traffic al- 
ready established and oftentimes immediately adjacent 
to car lines and railways. 

General Arrangement of Building. — It is not an un- 
common thing to see a school building with steps and 
doorways so arranged that much unnecessary time is 
consumed in convening and dismissing school. It is 
actual economy of time for children and teachers, and 
therefore economy in education, to plan very carefully 
the stairs, doorways, and exits for quick and easy en- 
trance and exit to street and playground. It would 
be easy to record years of lost time because of poor 
planning in these respects. With an arrangement of 
halls and stairways which requires thirty seconds of 
excess time in convening or dismissing a school of five 
hundred pupils with only four convenings and four 
dismissals during the day, we have a loss of over thirty- 
three hours of time per day. Illustrations might be 
given of school buildings in which the loss of time is two 



86 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 66. — Laclede Elementary School, St. Louis, Missouri. 




LACLEDE, SCHOOL 

iST.LOUI?, MO. 
W».B.ITTNE,E-, . 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 



87 




npgpD 



FIE-/5T PLOOE- PLAN 




££COND FLOOR. PLAN 

id.LOFFuT 



LACLEDE, SCHOOL 

Wm-.B.ITTNEjIL, AB-CHlTEfi'T 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



or three times this amount. Stairs should be so planned 
as to bring most direct access between classrooms and 
playground, and exits should be wide enough to give 
full capacity to the stairs. The adequacy of stair equip- 
ment depends therefore upon both their number and 
location. There should be no room for dispute as to 
their sufficiency. 



Cleanliness. — Teachers and principals universally 
will agree that lack of cleanliness of the school building 
not only endangers the health of the children but inter- 
feres with the best operation of the school. School 
buildings should be planned more carefully to assist in 
cleanliness. Ledges and moldings and other flat pro- 
jections should be eliminated. There are but few of 
them that cannot be abandoned. Rough walls due 
either to the desire to create a rough surface or to faulty 
construction are dust and germ collectors. It is actual 
economy to spend more money in construction that 
avoids dust collectors rather than to spend it later on 
the removal of dust. 

Height of Buildings. — ■ Administration as well as 
economical reasons should be urged for building in the 
most compact form. There are many things that may 
be said in favor of one-story buildings, but from the 
administrative point of view one-story buildings be- 
yond perhaps ten classrooms are not desirable. The 
consensus of opinion of a large number of principals 
with whom the writer has conferred on this question is 
in favor of a building with two floors above the ground 
floor. In this building the indoor playrooms, janitor's 
rooms, heating apparatus, and the main toilet accommo- 
dations should be placed on the ground floor and this 
should be on the level with the playground. The toilet 
accommodations should be located particularly con- 
venient to the playground, so that they will be service- 
able not only during the school hours but for playground 
activities conducted outside of school hours. If there is 
room enough on this floor it will be economical and prob- 
ably desirable to locate here shops and domestic science 
rooms. The plumbing can be made more economical, 
and if properly located there will be less objection to 
their noise. The kindergarten room may also be prop- 
erly located on the ground floor, with easy access to the 
playground. 

There are few climates in which covered playrooms 
are not imperative. Many persons who are not suffi- 
ciently familiar with the school problem, and a few 
who are, have been willing to eliminate covered play- 
rooms. This must always result in children playing 
in the rooms and corridors during the inclement weather 
or else not being able to play at all, which is still worse. 
The elimination of playrooms means the exhaustion of 
nervous energy of children and teachers which might be 



much better spent on school work. The covered play- 
room should be abundantly open to the fresh air. Mod- 
ern organization of recreational facilities makes it pos- 
sible to make the indoor playroom take a real part in 
education. 

Standardization of the Classroom. — There has been 
a growing opinion that the type of classroom of the 
future has become pretty well fixed. It is fortunate 
for school architecture that the type of classroom did 
not become fixed twenty-five years ago at the standards 
of that time, and it will be probably just as fortunate 
for the period of twenty-five years hence if the idea of 
standardization does not get any greater foothold now. 
Standardization usually means stagnation. The stand- 
ardized classroom and the obsolete lock-step promotion 
system go hand in hand. The future elementary school 
will surely not be classified and graded as is the pres- 
ent elementary school. The future elementary school 
will have more teachers and more classrooms, there- 
fore, unless we are to build larger buildings, the class- 
rooms may be still smaller. There will be classes of 
children advancing more rapidly than what we pro- 
nounce the normal rate of progress and there will be 
classes of children who are incapable of doing the regu- 
lar type of classroom work. Also classes for blind and 
deaf are often organized. Particularly in upper-grade 
work, even in the elementary schools including grades 
higher than the sixth, it will be desirable to have rooms 
set apart for music and drawing and probably for 
science. Various schools have made experiments along 
these lines and some of them have been very successful. 

Special Rooms. — So far as the administration of 
schools is concerned, it is not at all necessary that rooms 
should be made small, but the modern cost of building 
demands that the square feet of floor space shall not be 
greater than is necessary for a proper conduct of the 
class. The size of the present standard classroom is 
none too large for the present standard class and is none 
too large even for smaller classes, therefore, only for 
economical reasons should smaller rooms for smaller 
classes be adopted. The music room might readily be 
combined with the auditorium, provided the auditorium 
is so constructed as to make it an attractive room suit- 
able for this use. If the auditorium is to be a large one, 
it will be unsatisfactory for ordinary classroom in- 
struction in music. Ideally, such a room should be 
about one and one-half to two times the usual sized 
classroom. It is not in the present development of the 
subject imperative that there should be a separate 
room for drawing in the elementary grades, but a room 
somewhat larger than the regular classroom could be 
equipped in a manner to make drawing very much more 
satisfactory even for pupils in the primary grades. 






* I 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 9* 




-1 

|n 








LL- 


— — 


[n 




In 




[n 


— * 


I 



■ ^ZCOAO) /2<9i9,e PI/IN ■ 




-C./7" /^O.OSL f>/4 



Fig. 72. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



Mr. Jo?m J. Donovan, A 



9 2 



SCHOOL -ARCHITECTURE 




:-s -s? ■ 



''ii^^LJLiLii.Jk^X 



i; 



Fig. 73. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



r. John J. Donovan, ArcMte 



ll 



.5 i«« s 



ki^bysfflllSk 'S 1 1 




Fig. 74. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



n J. Donovan, Architect. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 




Fig. 75. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



Mt. John J. Donovan, j 



It is much more difficult to define what the science 
room ought to be. There is much diversity of opinion. 
It would seem, however, that in every school there 
should be a room in which classes in simple experi- 
mentation, sand and clay modeling, and other similar 
work may be conveniently conducted. In such a room 
the furniture would be chairs and tables, and the room 
would be supplied with the proper plumbing for water 
and gas. 

Complete Equipment. — It is rather a common prac- 
tice to exhaust all of the available funds in the build- 
ing operations, leaving it to the future to provide light- 
ing fixtures, electric bells and clocks, telephones, drink- 
ing fountains, cupboards, lockers, bookcases, and such 
fixtures. This usually results in the school being 
without these things for a considerable length of time 
and perhaps forever. It is a prevalent misconception 
that a good school needs only a good building. Many 
communities proceed on the theory that because schools 
have been conducted without such equipment schools 
still may be so conducted. They do not recognize 



that the absence of such equipment means the waste 
of time and effort of those in charge of the school, and 
therefore must result in less effort and attention being 
given to the welfare of the youth. It is a difficult thing 
to learn that there is no economy in doing things wrong. 
In this connection it should be noted that a school build- 
ing and grounds that are to be used for recreational 
facilities are not properly equipped without showers and 
swimming-pools. 

Physical Education. — It should be noted that here- 
after the American public is going to demand proper 
physical education, and that this proper physical edu- 
cation will primarily require outdoor facilities for recrea- 
tion and indoor facilities consisting of dressing-rooms, 
showers, and swimming-pools. It will not be high 
schools only that must have such equipment. 

Health and Sanitation. — One room in the building 
large enough to supply the needs of the health officer 
in making physical tests should be devoted entirely 
to the health department, including in its purposes the 
supplying the school needs for a rest and emergency 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




ALBERT R. SABIN SCHOOL. 

Hirsch and Leavitt Streets, Chicago. 

a. f. hussander. architect, 

Board of Education.. Chicago. 

Fig. 76. 



room. It should have adjacent to it suitable wash 
basins and toilet, and the room should be properly fur- 
nished for its purposes. The corridors of the buildings 




~Fmr Floo& Pj.an~ 
'ALDERT- £- SADJN- SCHOOL • 

■Nl£AWTTSK HIPSCSf-ST.i?, N.IPWNG/W- 
■AFMU55AND£-e- ■ ■AQCHITJECr- 

■ POABD- OFEDUt 

• CHICAGO ■ 

Fig. 77. 



should be so constructed as to have permanent outside 
ventilation. Supplementary toilet accommodations 
should be located on each wing on each floor. In most 
climates it would be desirable for construction to be 
such that every classroom has certain ventilation which 
cannot be shut off by the teacher. 

Arrangement of Classrooms. — Considerable care 
should be devoted to bringing the classrooms for like 
or similar grades close together. More and more various 
grades are cooperating in their work. It is, therefore, 
economy of time and effort to have these grades as near 
together as possible. The kindergarten should be near 
the first grade ; the first grades should be close together 
and near the second, and so on throughout the school. 
It should be noted that the smaller the children the 
nearer the exits they should be. Consequently, it 
follows that the upper grades should be on the upper 
floors. Above the fourth grade at least some of the 
rooms should be properly equipped for operating stere- 
opticons and projectoscopes to be used in connection 
with the school work. 

Visual Instruction. — ■ Visual instruction is to play a 
larger and larger part in the regular school curriculum. 
Geography and history and nature study and many of 
the other school subjects will depend materially upon 
this line of instruction in the future. A very simple 
equipment can be adopted for some of the classrooms, 
and a complete moving picture apparatus should be in 
connection with the assembly hall. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 




-■j£C£W>/Z00&. P/.AW- 

- A LDERT- R - SA£>JN- SCHOOL- 

■N-LeAvirr-:T.-n/iescM-sr.-(f,-N-)evma-Ay- 

■AF-HU53ANDCJ3- ■ AQCHITECT ■ 
■ BOABP OF EDUCATION ■ 




The Assembly Hall. — The assembly hall is no longer 
a place to be closed up all of the year except upon the 
last day of each term. The assembly hall should be 
used by the school for all sorts of school work and recrea- 
tion. It should be available for a great variety of 
community interests and it should become a real asset 
to the school in bringing the school and the community 
closer together. It is important therefore that the 
assembly room be so located as to be easily accessible 
to those portions of the school using it most, and at the 
same time so located that it can be used by the com- 
munity without interfering with the rest of the school 
building. 

Office and Library. — ■ Economy of space may be well 
practiced in the arrangement of office and library and 
yet provide a perfectly satisfactory equipment. In 
elementary buildings, of which we are now speaking, 
there should be a small ante-room and adjacent to it a 
small office. These rooms sometimes have been omitted 
altogether, and in other cases they have been made ex- 
cessively large. Both mistakes should be avoided. 
Adjacent to the office should be a storeroom for school 
supplies, and another room which may be called the 
library but which is primarily a storeroom for books. 
The reading of the books should be under the super- 
vision of the classroom teachers in the classrooms. 



-TH/bd Ftooe Plan- 
° AL&EQT'R-SADJN ■ SCHOOL - 

M-ltAV/TT- ST.- HIGSC/fST 4 -N-/BWNG AV ■ 

A FHUSSANDE/S- ARCHITECT- 

■ BOAPD- OF -EDU CAT/ON ■ 

CHICAGO 

Fig. 79. 

There should be located conveniently in every class- 
room as a part of the building a suitable bookcase and 
filing cabinet. This can be arranged as one piece with 
bookshelves above and the file space for school papers 
below. 

The Elementary Course of Study. — In high schools 
and junior high schools a proper plan of the building 
is dependent upon a knowledge of the course of study 
to be pursued therein. In a very much less degree is 
this true in the elementary schools, but even there it is 
necessary for those who are planning such buildings to 
know something of the nature of the activities to be 
conducted. Kindergarten rooms have become fairly 
well standardized because the kindergarten itself is 
standardized, perhaps too much so. 

In the lowest primary grades through three or four 
years work the classroom work is very largely confined 
to acquiring the tools of learning. There should be 
abundant blackboard space — all that it is possible to 
secure. In addition to the regular standard desks 
there should be room for carrying on some schoolroom 
activities. Just what these shall be no one is able to 
say. Perhaps it is well that this is true. It is gen- 
erally conceded that there should be opportunity for 
these grades to work around sand tables or around a 
table on which they portray by their own handiwork 



o6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



various types of human activities. In the grades above 
the fourth and even including the fourth, in addition to 
the studies long established in the schools — reading, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, and spelling — every modern school will 
have adequate provision for history, geography, nature 
study, physical education, music, drawing, and various 
types of handwork. The history and geography need the 
assistance of the stereopticon, projectoscope, and moving 
picture apparatus. The geography and nature study can 
be better conducted with the assistance of an experi- 
mental or science room. Physical education demands 
proper playgrounds, indoor playgrounds for inclement 
weather, showers, and perhaps a swimming pool, and 
can well use the auditorium for some activities. The 
needs for music, drawing, and handwork have been 
spoken of elsewhere. Therefore, in conclusion it is 
most urgently recommended that before attempting 
to actually record by drawings the rooms and depart- 
ments of the school so as to formulate a scheme for any 
such building, the architect and the schoolman should 
study fully the requirements of each school problem. 
The present and near future enrollment, the prospect 
of the community changing in character — that is, 
from residential to industrial, the possibilities of changes 
in methods of teaching, the important phases of child 
hygiene, these with many other features pertaining to 
school administration and the health and well being of 
the child are problems that should be thoroughly 



thrashed out in conferences before the preliminary 
drawings are started. 

The tabulations given in Chapter IV under the Re- 
quirements for Low Elementary and High Elementary 
Schools will be aids in determining the physical needs. 
From these tabulations may be prepared more extensive 
building programs than are outlined therein, for certain 
communities have problems differing from those of others, 
and it is a recognized fact that schools like individuals 
cannot be of the same mould. If the planning of the 
school is viewed from this standpoint a good start will 
have been made, and from there on the success of the 
work will depend largely upon the growth of this early 
vision and upon familiarity with the phases and aspects 
of the building to house and care for the child in its 
preparation for life's work. 

The writer hesitates to trespass upon premises of 
other's provinces, but it does seem that the architecture 
of the elementary school should be symbolic of quiet 
simplicity, expressing in permanent materials much the 
same charm that the little child has for those who ap- 
preciate and love children. Vainglorious attempts to 
build monumentally are fatal to both child and adult, 
for instead of attracting the child's interest they are 
most likely to repel and make fearful. First impres- 
sions are most lasting and most influential and how much 
better it is if the impressions and influences of the archi- 
tecture are pleasing and beneficial at an early age. 




Mr. John J. Donovan, 

Fig. 8o. — Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, California. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



* SB! S8S iiii 80S t 



i. 



Mr. John J. Donov. 

Fig. 82. — Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, California. 



.£ ' 









JSJU-. 





Fig. 83. — Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, Calif 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 99 




Fig. 84. — Leland Stanford Jr, University Elementary School, Palo Alto, California. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 




.SECOND FLOOR. PLAN • 



FIRST FLOOR. PLAN • 



EDWAR.D 5. BBAGG PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING 
FOND W LAC • -WISCONSIN • 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 87. — Oakton School District 76, Evanston, Illinois. 



Messrs. Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, Architects. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 103 




Fig. 88. — Oakton School District 76, Evanston, Illinois. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 89. — Glasgow School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



Mr. Wm. B. Iltner, Architect. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 105 




Fig. 90. — Ashland School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 91. — Grammar School, Kirkwood, Missouri. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 




io8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 93. — Grammar School No. 2, Glendora, California. 



Allison and Allison, Architects. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AS AFFECTING BUILDINGS 109 







Fig. 94. — Grammar School No. 2, Glendora, California. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Grammar school N° 2 Glendoea Cal 
Fig. 95. 



CHAPTER VI 



THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL AS 
AFFECTING BUILDINGS 

By E. Morris Cox, A.B., Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California 

The Types of Junior High School. The Academic Type. The Industrial Type. The Neighborhood or Community Type. The 
Cosmopolitan Type. Science Laboratories. Library. Office Equipment. Teachers' Retirement and Lunch Rooms. The Audi- 
torium and Gvmnasium. The Junior High School Course of Study. 



In a very large measure the conditions outlined in 
reference to the elementary schools apply likewise to the 
junior high school. It is therefore suggested that the 
preceding chapter in relation to the elementary schools 
should be read before this chapter. It is possible that 
the school site may need to be larger than for elementary 
schools to supply sufficient room for school gardening, 
athletic fields, etc. In the main, however, the recom- 
mendations in the former chapter regarding the general 
arrangement of the building, its cleanliness, and the 
completeness of its equipment, may be applied to this 
type of school. Whether there should be a third story 
in a junior high school may be a matter of sufficient 
difference of opinion as to leave the final answer depend- 
ent upon conditions to be met in individual cases. 

The Types of Junior High School. — The character 
of the building should depend largely upon the partic- 
ular type of school for which the structure is being 
planned. There have already been developed in various 
communities four rather distinct types of junior high 
schools, — the academic, the industrial, the cosmopolitan, 
and the neighborhood or community school. 

The Academic Type. — This type of building is 
much better standardized than any of the others. The 
building should consist of standardized classrooms, 
with some laboratory equipment, some simple shops, 
suitable music and drawing laboratories and about the 
same type of office equipment, library, and auditorium 
accommodations as would be used in the other types. 

The Industrial Type. — Probably any discussion as 
to the exact equipment and accommodation for an 
industrial type junior high school would be out of date 
before it could be printed and circulated. Such rapid 
changes and improvements have been taking place 
that almost every building erected contains important 
new features. Really nothing in the way of shop 



accommodations has been standardized. It is, however, 
generally considered that schools of this type should 
provide for sheet metal work, woodworking, machine 
shop practice, blacksmithing, printing, and a variety of 
types of classes in general sewing, millinery, dressmaking, 
cooking, and dietetics. One general criticism may be 
passed on most of the buildings of this type. Proper 
attention has not been given to storage space for raw 
materials or for the partially completed or completed 
work. At present there is a general consensus of opinion 
that the drawing to be done in connection with the 
industrial work should be under the supervision of a 
drawing department working in close harmony with 
the shops and laboratories. If this becomes an estab- 
lished procedure, the drawing laboratories should be 
more completely developed than has previously been 
the case. 

The Neighborhood or Community Type. — This type 
of school differs from the others in its equipment for 
general community service. Such a school partakes 
largely of the nature of the industrial school. The 
shops can be so planned as to offer opportunities for 
afternoon and evening work for the men, and the labora- 
tories, cooking, sewing, millinery, and dressmaking 
rooms may be as well adapted to the use of the women 
of the neighborhood as for the pupils of the day school. 
Some of these activities may be better carried on in a 
community cottage separate and apart from these class- 
rooms, in which can be organized a great variety of 
community activities and in which the Americanization 
work for the mothers of the community may be largely 
carried on. The community type of school must needs 
carry both its indoor and outdoor recreational and 
physical training facilities to all of the people of the 
neighborhood. The library and laboratories should be 
as thoughtfully planned for general community use as 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





i. - Jr 



Trenton, New Jersey. 



they are for day school use, and the auditorium can be 
used even more for community use than for the regular 
day school. 

The Cosmopolitan Type. — In many neighborhoods, 
the variety of needs will be so great as to make it neces- 
sary that the building be constructed as far as possible 
to meet the variety of conditions outlined under each 
of these types. It may not be possible to develop each 
line as fully as in the special types, but through a careful 
selection, various types of work along the several lines 
may be included. 

Science Laboratories. — ■ The general deficiency in 
scientific training given by our lower schools is becoming 
recognized. Lack of experience in proper science teach- 
ing in these schools has limited the data at hand from 
which to determine how many or what type of science 
laboratories should be installed in a junior high school, 
or to what extent these laboratories should be equipped 
with scientific apparatus and appliances. Pupils and 



schools of this type 'are just at the age when they should 
receive their introduction to scientific thought. It 
would therefore seem that the science courses in schools 
of this type should be of a somewhat general nature. 
If this is correct, there should be laboratories enough to 
give to all pupils in the school an opportunity for science 
training amounting to at least two recitation periods 
per week. These laboratories should be equipped with 
working tables, with gas, electricity, and running water, 
and with a rather liberal equipment for keeping living 
plants and animals and other specimens in the laboratory. 
Library. — There should be a library room in charge 
of a librarian. The library should be liberally equipped 
with books carefully selected on the basis of their direct 
application to the work of the school. Pupils should be 
carefully taught the use of reference books and the use 
of a library for topical study. This means, therefore, 
that the libraries should be of liberal size and planned 
as if to be directed by a regular librarian. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 




Fig. 07- — Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



\\ I Y'\ 



Office Equipment. — A proper arrangement of offices 
with the necessary equipment for the administrative 
work of the school frequently receives too little attention. 
There should be an outer and an inner office with a 
liberal-sized storeroom for school supplies adjacent. 
A master clock, controlling the program and secondary 
clocks and bells of the school, should be installed in the 
office and likewise a serviceable telephone system con- 
necting with all the rooms of the building. The outer 
office should be so arranged as to provide working and 
filing space for the principal's clerk. In the large schools 
there should be an office for a vice principal. In case 
this official is a woman, the office may advantageously 
be located adjacent to and connected with the rest rooms 
for women teachers. 

Teachers' Retiring and Lunch Rooms. — Adequate, 
comfortable, and attractive rooms for the use of the 
teachers will repay the community many fold. Too 
often these rooms do not exist at all or are arranged in 



some little nook because it is of no service for any other 
purpose. The nature of teaching is such that under the 
very best of conditions the tax upon the physical well- 
being of teachers is sufficient to exhaust even the hardiest. 
Consequently everything that is done in the school 
building arrangements to protect this physical well-being 
will return dividends to the school. 

The Auditorium and Gymnasium. — It is a difficult 
thing to plan an auditorium to serve all of the activities 
that should be carried on in the community meeting 
room connected with the school building. The problem 
is very much simplified if a gymnasium separate from 
the auditorium is possible. In this case the gymnasium 
should be so planned as to provide for a great variety 
of indoor athletic activities and of course should have 
adjacent to it lockers, showers, and lavatories. The 
auditorium should have a seating capacity for all of 
the school if possible, and should be equipped for both 
school and community use with a moving picture 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 98. — Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



apparatus. The chairs should be movable so that the 
floor may be used for a variety of other purposes, — re- 
ceptions, exhibitions of school work, and other activities. 
The Junior High School Course of Study. — These 
institutions are so new, that the course of study has not 
become thoroughly standardized. It seems, however, 
that a course of study something like the following will 
offer a standard for building plans. 

First Year (7th year of schooling) 
English : reading, spelling, language study, penmanship. 
History and geography 
Arithmetic 
Science 

Music, vocal and instrumental 
Drawing 

Physical training and hygiene 
Industrial and vocational subjects 
Foreign languages 
Commercial subjects (stenography and typing) 



Second Year (8th year of schooling) 
Course similar to first year with probably some variations 
in hours. 

Third Year (9th year of schooling) 
English, including grammar and composition 
Science 
(At least three electives for each pupil from the following 

subjects) 
Foreign languages 
Mathematics 
History 

Industrial and vocational subjects 
Commercial subjects 
Music, vocal and instrumental 
Drawing 

The amount of work offered in industrial and voca- 
tional subjects, foreign languages, commercial subjects, 
music, and drawing would depend upon the type of school. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 










ftPPXOVLD Puu-1 



-fcifc! 












-1mf> fjRyr ^Junior - f-JicH *ycHQOL< 

N-OLD-ALMJ-HOUJL-JITr. -PRINCtTON* AVC- 

♦ fbR *Tnr>Q TY * or ^Trcnton* 

Fig. 99. 



, , . *y* *& q^ j ' 



Afr. Wm. A. Poland, ArcMU 



n6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




. ' ;...-- -XH E * p'RyT * J U N I O R * f~J.f G H ♦</£ HOOL" 

- ^SpSaJs&ffc, - ON - O L D - ALM -5 - HO U SI - .SIT 1 - PRINCETON - AYE. - 
♦ fOR ♦jMC:»QTY*Or*XRENTONt 
♦ISJE.VJ ♦Jr.P.SEY* 

Fig. ioo. 



Mt. Wm. A. Poland, * 



ORGANIZATION OF THEf INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 




3:- 



i 



♦7h e ♦ fia/'T ♦Junior ♦ High *ycH(x 

-ON-OLD-ALMJ-MOUJt-OTt- PRINCETON - AVE - 

♦For ♦T HE *0 TT * or< T Rr:!srTON1 * 
*Me.w * Jersey* 



L. Poland, Architect 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



!#:■*'■'***«?} 




♦The ♦pRVT ♦ Junjor * High School 

-ON-OLD-ALM^-HOU^C-^lTt - PRINCETON - AVE - 
♦fOR »XHE:*QTpr*Or-jRENTON* 

♦New : * Jersey* 



Mr, Wm. A. Poland, Architect. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 







• i 



Fig. 103. — Junior High School, Little Rock, Arkansas. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




wm$&. 



Fig. 104. — Junior High School, Little Rock, Ark 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR IUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 




BASEMENT FLOOR PLAN 



JUNIOR.' HIGH SCHOOL 
LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 

TtiEO.M SANDERS. ARCHITECT. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




FIRST FLOOR PLAN 

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 

TlfEO MS 'ANDERS, . 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 




SECOND FLOOR PLAN 

^JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL . LITTLE-EO CK\. ARK. 

TtlEO.M SANDIRS, AKi 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 108. — Edison Junior High School, Berkeley, California. 



'. H. Ralcllff. Jr., Architect. 



ORGANIZATION OF THE INTERMEDIATE OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 



F I \ 5 T 



r l o o ft. 



PLAN 




LMSO.S--JC-BOOL ' U K L CY 

'r w • k ' p. a t c i ; r r • j x ' a r. c ii ; t l:t 

Fig. 109 



CHAPTER VII 

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS AS 
AFFECTING BUILDINGS 

By Clarence D. Kingsley (M.A. Columbia University), Supervisor of High Schools, Massachusetts Department of 

Education x 

I. Who Are to be Served: i. Organization of the School System; 2. Variations in the Three-Block System; 3. Comprehen- 
sive versus Special-Type High Schools; 4. Determination of the Contributing Area for Senior High Schools; 5. Determination 
of the Contributing Area for Junior High Schools; 6. Probable Number of Pupils to be Furnished by the Contributing Area. 
iH- II. Internal, Organization as Affecting Accommodations: 1. Flexibility; 2. Program of Studies; 3. Staff of the School; 4. Size 
of Laboratories and Shops; 5. Size of Classrooms; 6. Actual Size of Classes ; 7. Provisions for Study ; (a) Kind of Provisions to 
be Made ; (6) Number of Sittings Required ; (c) Size of Study Halls ; (d) Articulation of Study Halls with the Library ; 8. Time- 
Allotment for Physical Training; 9. Number of Periods in the School Day; (a) Length of Period; (6) Length of School Day. 

III. Estimate and Tabulation of Accommodations Needed : 1. Multiple Uses; (a) Laboratory-Recitation Rooms ; (b) Gymna- 
sium-Assembly Hall ; 2. Sample Tabulation for a School of about 200 Pupils ; 3. Sample Tabulation for a School of about 400 Pupils. 

Appendix. A Schedule Providing for the Limited Introduction of Supervised Study. Special Provisions for Pupils Who Must 
Work Afternoons and Evenings. 



I. Who Are to be Served. — Before determining the 
site, costs, or sketch plans for a high school building, 
a thorough and comprehensive study should be made 
to ascertain the most desirable organization of the school 
system, the type of high school needed, the contributing 
area, and the probable number of high school pupils 
that will be furnished by the contributing area. 

1 . Organizdiion of the School System. — The authors 
of this book have assumed that the school system will 
contain elementary, junior high, and senior high schools. 
In view, however, of the fact that the introduction of 
junior high schools is a recent innovation, and the further 
fact that many cities have not as yet adopted the junior 
high school idea, a brief statement of the reasons favoring 
the new organization may be helpful. 

A system in which eight years are devoted to ele- 
mentary education and four years to secondary educa- 
tion is conveniently designated as an 8-4 system. One 
in which elementary education is shortened to six years, 
followed by three years for junior high schools and three 
for senior high schools, is known as a 6-3-3 system. 

The chief reasons for changing from an 8-4 to a 6-3-3 
system may be summarized as follows : 

(a) The seventh and eighth years of the elementary 
school have not, on the whole, been effectively utilized. 
Too much time has been devoted to reviewing material 
previously taught in the first six years. The work has 



lacked interest and many pupils have felt that they 
were gaining but little. In fact, fully one-half of the 
pupils have, in many communities, left school in these 
years. The pupils who remained commonly developed 
habits of dawdling at their work. These habits, bad in 
themselves, have been a serious detriment to high school 
work. Proficiency in certain fundamental processes 
may be better secured by the application of these 
processes to new subjects in the junior high school 
than by these reviews in elementary subjects. 

(b) The first year of the four-year high school has not 
been well adapted to the needs of the pupils of that year. 
The break from the school organization, subjects of study, 
and methods of instruction in the elementary school 
to the organization, subjects, and methods in the high 
school has been too sudden. The pupils have not been 
prepared for the transition. As a result the number 
of pupils leaving school in the first year of the four- 
year high school has been abnormally large. The 
junior high school is succeeding in bridging this gap. 
It makes possible the gradual introduction of depart- 
mental instruction, so that the pupil may pass from the 
constant and personal supervision by one teacher to 
instruction by four or more teachers. 

(c) The junior high school provides a social organiza- 
tion which develops self-expression, qualities of initiative 
and cooperation, and a sense of personal responsibility. 



1 Mr. Kingsley is chairman of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, appointed by the National Education Association. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



mtsa yg 



These qualities are important not only in school work 
but also as a preparation for citizenship in a democracy. 

(d) The junior high school, by providing experiences 
in a variety of work, helps the pupil in the exploration 
of his aptitudes and in the wise choice of work best 
suited to his needs in the senior high school. For the 
large majority of pupils the junior high school should be 
prevocational rather than vocational in aim. 

(e) The new organization makes it possible for the 
young children in the first six grades to obtain schooling 
within easy access of their homes, and brings together in 
junior high schools, a little farther away from the homes 
of some of them, a group of pupils sufficiently large 
to warrant the offering of the variety of work needed 
by pupils of varying interests and aptitudes and of 
varying probable destinies in life. 

2. Variations in the Three-Block System. — Instead 
of the 6-3-3 system some communities have 6-2-4, 
6-4-2, or 6-6 systems. The 6-2-4 system is found 
chiefly in places where a four-year high school is already 
adequately housed and the community does not feel 
justified in erecting a new building to care for more than 
the seventh and eighth years. This plan, however, is 
not ideal, because two years- is not a sufficient period in 
which to realize the distinctive purposes of the junior 
high school. Ninth-year pupils do not associate as 
normally and naturally with the pupils of the senior 
high school as they do with those of the junior high school. 
Moreover the junior high school is better able to meet 
the educational needs of pupils in the ninth school year 
than can the senior high school. 

In rural communities too small to maintain an effec- 
tive senior high school, the 6-4-2 plan is of tend esirable. 
With this plan the pupils may obtain instruction through 
the tenth grade, or to the age of approximately sixteen, 
in a school near home, and then go to a more distant 
school for the eleventh and twelfth years. This plan 



is being effectively worked out in Vermont, where four- 
year junior high schools are encouraged in small towns 
and strong central six-year high schools are established 
in larger, conveniently-located centers. 

In still other places the junior and senior high schools 
are organized as one school, or at least housed in one 
building, resulting in a 6-6 system. This plan is adapted 
to the needs. of communities too small to maintain dis- 
tinct junior and senior high schools, but sufficiently 
large to maintain an effective six-year high school. 
In such schools the special needs of the younger pupils 
must be provided for. Where the size of the school 
permits there may be two principals and two quite dis- 
tinct student bodies sharing in the use of certain common 
equipment, such as the auditorium, but using such 
equipment at different times. 

3. Comprehensive vs. Special-Type High Schools. — 
To meet the varied needs of high-school pupils most 
wisely and to safeguard and promote mutual under- 
standings in our democracy, the author of this chapter 
strongly favors the comprehensive type of high school 
instead of the specialized high schools found in certain 
American cities. In some of our oldest cities specialized 
high schools arose naturally because the earliest schools 
were of an academic type, while new schools were estab- 
lished to provide for newer types of secondary educa- 
tion. The existing schools conceived their function in 
narrow terms, and it was feared that they would not be 
friendly to the development of the newer types of edu- 
cation. In some other cities, specialized schools are 
due to a failure to plan comprehensively. The short- 
comings of specialized schools have already been recog- 
nized in certain cities having had such schools, with the 
result that specialized schools have been united to form 
comprehensive schools. 

" The arguments for the comprehensive high school 
are set forth as follows by the Commission on the Re- 



128 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




organization of Secondary Education, appointed by the 
National Education Association in its report entitled 
" Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education." : 

" The comprehensive (sometimes called composite, or 
cosmopolitan) high school, embracing all curriculums in 
one unified organization, should remain the standard 
type of secondary school in the United States. 

" Junior high schools must be of the comprehensive type, 
whatever policy be adopted for the senior high schools, 
since one of the primary purposes of the junior high school 
is to assist the pupil through a wide variety of contacts 
and experiences to obtain a basis for intelligent choice 
of his educational and vocational career. In the judg- 
ment of the commission senior high schools and four- 
year high schools of the older organizations should, as a 
rule, be of the comprehensive type, for the following 
reasons : 

" (a) For Effectiveness of Vocational Education. — When 
effectively organized and administered the comprehen- 
sive high school can make differentiated education of 
greater value to the individual and to society, for such 
value depends largely upon the extent to which the 
individual pursues the curriculum best suited to his 

1 Bulletin 35 for 1918, U. 



needs. This factor is of prime importance, although fre- 
quently ignored in discussions regarding the effective- 
ness of vocational and other types of differentiated 
education. 

" In a system of special- type schools many influences 
interfere with the wise choice of curriculum. Thus many 
pupils choose the high school nearest to their homes, 
or the school to which their friends have gone or are 
going, or the school that provides the most attractive 
social life, or has the best athletic teams. Still others 
are unwisely influenced by the notions of neighbors 
and friends of the family. After entering a special- 
type school, many pupils drop out because the work is 
not adapted to their needs, while comparatively few 
transfer to another school. 

" In a comprehensive school the influences interfering 
with a wise choice of curriculum may be reduced, to a 
minimum. When an unwise choice has been made the 
pupil may be greatly aided in discovering a curriculum 
better adapted to his needs because he can see other 
work in the school, talk with school companions, and 
confer with teachers who are able to give him expert 
advice regarding such curriculums. When such a pupil 

S. Bureau of Education. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



■GR.OUND • FLOOR. -HAN 




•PROPOSED -NEW- HIGH-SCHOOL- FOR.- SANTA 'BARBARA* CALIF/ 



has found a curriculum better adapted to his needs, 
he can be transferred to it without severance of school 
relationships and, what seems to him, the sacrifice of 
school loyalty. 

" Moreover, pupils in comprehensive schools have con- 
tacts valuable to them vocationally, since people in 
every vocation must be able to deal intelligently with 
those in other vocations, and employers and employees 
must be able to understand one another and recognize 
common interests. Similarly, teachers in comprehen- 
sive schools have a better opportunity to observe other 
curriculums and are thereby better able to advise pupils 
intelligently. 

"Summarizing under this head, the well-organized 
comprehensive school can make differentiated education 
of greater value than can the special-type school, because 
it aids in a wise choice of curriculum, assists in readjust- 
ments when such are desirable, and provides for wider 
contacts essential to true success in every vocation. 

" (b) For Unification. — When administered by a prin- 
cipal who himself recognizes the social value of all types 
of secondary education and inspires a broad spirit of 
democracy among teachers and pupils, the compre- 



hensive high school is a better instrument for unification. 
Through friendships formed with pupils pursuing other 
curriculums and having vocational and educational goals 
widely different from their own, the pupils realize that 
the interests which they hold in common with others are, 
after all, far more important than the differences that 
would tend to make them antagonistic to others. 
Through school assemblies and organizations they 
acquire common ideas. Through group activities they 
secure training in cooperation. Through loyalty to a 
school which includes many groups they are prepared 
for loyalty to State and Nation. In short, the compre- 
hensive school is the prototype of a democracy in which 
various groups must have a degree of self-consciousness 
as groups and yet be federated into a larger whole 
through the recognition of common interests and ideals. 
Life in such a school is a natural and valuable prepara- 
tion for life in a democracy. 

" (c) For Objectives Other than Vocation. — A compre- 
hensive high school can provide much more effectively 
for health education, education for the worthy use of 
leisure, and home-making education than a number of 
smaller special-type schools can. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



*ft99| 






_ 



dti2EEPb--ii r CEL:::ij 






[R.SI • FLOOR 



^PROPOSED* NEW' HIGH- SCHOOL- FOIL- SANTA' BARBARA *CAUF.< 



" The most effective health education requires adequate 
equipment and instructors competent to diagnose health 
needs and direct health activities. Expenses and 
difficulties of duplication of such facilities in every 
smaller special-type school are almost prohibitive. 
Preparation for the worthy use of leisure is best achieved 
when there is a wide variety of activities from which 
pupils may select, such as arts and crafts clubs, literary 
and debating societies, and musical organizations. All 
of these require for their success enthusiastic leadership 
such as can best be secured from a large faculty. Girls 
in all curriculums should have the advantages of work 
in household arts under efficient directors and with ade- 
quate equipment. Such conditions are most readily 
provided in the comprehensive school where there is a 
strong department of household arts. 

" With the establishment of a special- type high school 
it frequently happens that various important phases 
of education are neglected or minimized in the other 
schools of that system. 

" (d) For Accessibility. — In cities large enough to re- 



quire more than one high school it is desirable to have 
each school so located as to serve a particular section of 
the city, thereby reducing the expense and loss of time 
involved in travel on the part of pupils. The proximity 
of the school to the homes results also in greater interest 
in education on the part of pupils and parents, and con- 
sequently increases the drawing and holding power of 
the school. 

" (e) Adaptation to Local Needs. — In recommending 
the comprehensive high school as the standard secondary 
school the commission recognizes that in large cities 
where two or more high schools are needed it is not 
always possible to provide every curriculum in each 
high school, such a practice being precluded by the fact 
that certain curriculums would thereby enroll in the 
several schools too few pupils to permit economical 
organization and administration. In such cases a few 
curriculums may well appear in selected comprehensive 
schools or even in a single school only, while other 
curriculums appear in every school. 

" The commission also recognizes the impracticability 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




\ 



H^rjxznr 



SECOND • ELOO 



r ^PROPQ3£3)*NEW'HIGH^3CHO OL-FOR.^ANTA-BARBARA ; CALIF;: 



of offering every curriculum in every small rural high 
school. In such cases it is desirable that a curriculum 
for which the number of pupils does not warrant such 
duplication should be offered in selected schools, and that 
pupils needing that curriculum should go to those schools. 
This plan is substantially the same as that recommended 
for the large city. 

" (/) Eeffctive Organization of Curriculums in Compre- 
hensive High Schools. — Finally, the commission recog- 
nizes that in the past relatively ineffective instruction 
has been afforded in some comprehensive schools. This 
has been due in part to the fact that everywhere voca- 
tional education has been passing and is still passing 
through a period of experimentation. The commission , 
believes, however, that the most serious defect in voca- 
tional education in the comprehensive high school has 
been due to a lack of proper organization and adminis- 
tration. Effective vocational education cannot be 
secured when administered like so many accidental 
groupings of subjects. To remedy this situation the 
commission recommends that each curriculum, or group 
of closely related curriculums, in the large comprehensive 



high school be placed under the supervision of a director 
whose task it shall be to organize that curriculum and 
maintain its efficiency. The curriculum directors must 
work under the general direction of the principal, who 
must be the coordinator of all the activities of the school. 
Especially is it necessary that each director shall be 
selected with the same care that would be exercised in 
choosing the principal of a special-type school enrolling as 
many pupils as are enrolled in the curriculum or curricu- 
lums under his direction. In medium-sized high schools 
unable to. employ directors for the various curriculums, 
the teachers should be organized into committees to con- 
sider the problems of the various curriculums, all 
working under the direction of the principal. 

" Unless the various curriculums are effectively organ- 
ized and administered, and unless the democratic spirit 
pervades the school, the comprehensive high school is in 
danger of failure ; with these factors present, it has every 
promise of success." 

4. Determination of the Contributing Area for Senior 
High Schools. — High schools should be so distributed 
that the contributing area for each school will be sum- 



I 3 2 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



ciently large to supply enough students to warrant a wide 
variety of curriculums, but not so large that pupils in 
the more remote sections of that area will be deterred 
from attendance, or that the cost of transportation and 
the time spent in travel will be excessive. 

In villages and rural sections a high school should 
not be built until the situation has been thoroughly can- 
vassed to ascertain whether the needs of the pupils 
will be best served (a) by building a local school, or 
(&) by furnishing tuition and transportation to an exist- 
ing high school in a neighboring town or city, or (c) by 
uniting with other towns or districts in establishing a 
union high-school district. 

In Massachusetts all school districts within township 
lines were abolished fifty years ago, and the city or 
township became the taxation unit for the support of 
schools. The state contains 38 such cities and 316 
townships. Of these only 6 cities and 3 towns maintain 
more than one high school each, while 114 towns which 
do not maintain a high school pay the tuition and trans- 
portation of pupils to high schools in other towns or 
cities. The desirability of encouraging two or more 
towns to unite in maintaining union high schools is 
receiving favorable consideration. 

In Illinois, school districts regardless of township 
lines may unite in a new taxation unit for the purpose 
of establishing a union high school. 

In California the state and county provide generous 
aid to any district maintaining a high school, and a 
pupil may attend, without payment of tuition, any high 
school within the county in which he or she resides. 
While California has nineteen times the area of Massa- 
chusetts it has only about the same number of high 
schools as the latter state. 

One advantage in establishing a union high-school dis- 
trict instead of paying tuition and transportation lies in 
the fact that the people in all portions of the union dis- 
trict may take part in the selection of the board control- 
ling the school, and consequently the needs of the pupils 
from all portions are more likely to receive adequate 
consideration. Also, more money may be available for 
erecting the building. 

When rural districts are within easy access of cities 
the question arises as to whether the needs of country 
youth are so different from those of city youth that an 
attempt should be made to send them to a union rural 
high school rather than to a city high school. Much 
may be said on both sides of this question. It is likely 
that their needs will be more fully met by the union 
rural school if that school be accessible and large enough 
to provide a good variety of curriculums. On the 
other hand, the needs of country and city youth are not 
sharply divided, since many city youth would profit 



by an agricultural curriculum, while many country youth 
should be prepared for professions and occupations 
essentially urban in character. 

In small and medium-sized cities one high school, com- 
prehensive in type, is to be preferred to two or more 
smaller high schools. 

This comprehensive high school should offer all types 
of secondary education, including all varieties of trade 
and continuation education that may wisely be estab- 
lished for the young people of high-school age in that 
community. It is reasonable to assume that pupils 
living within a radius of one and a half miles will be 
actually benefited by walking to and from school. 

A problem arising in every growing city is whether to 
enlarge its existing high school or to build additional 
schools. The solution of this problem will depend 
upon geographical considerations and upon the decision 
as to the most desirable size of high school. Contrary 
to the opinion frequently held, a very large high school 
can be administered not only economically but also 
effectively, provided that the school board does not 
practice false economy by failing to furnish the prin- 
cipal with the assistance which he needs for the dis- 
charge of his administrative and supervisory duties. 
It is seldom possible for a principal to come into close 
personal contact with every pupil in a school of even 
500. Moreover one man cannot, unaided, devote ade- 
quate attention simultaneously to all the varied duties 
involved in the administration and supervision of even 
a medium-sized school. The best administration, there- 
fore, involves the delegation of important duties. With 
the recognition of this truth the arguments for a school 
of restricted size largely disappear. 

In cities too large in area for one high school, the city 
should be divided into two or more districts, each to 
be served by a comprehensive high school. Too fre- 
quently such cities have increased high school accom- 
modations by the erection of special-type high schools. 
This method has not reduced to any appreciable extent 
the amount of travel and has produced many bad results 
educationally and socially. By the district plan exces- 
sive loss of time and money involved in travel to and 
from school is avoided. Each such district high school 
should offer all the curriculums for which there is suffi- 
cient need in its district. Any curriculum for which 
there is not sufficient demand to warrant duplication 
in all schools may be offered in one or more schools 
only, and pupils needing that curriculum encouraged 
to attend those schools. By this plan the establish- 
ment of special-type schools is avoided and all the 
schools have the advantages of breadth and catho- 
licity, even though some may not have all the cur- 
riculums. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




5. Determination of the Contributing Area for Junior 
High Schools. — The contributing area for a junior high 
school should, in some cases, be smaller than that for a 
senior high school. For rural areas the Vermont plan 
is to be commended, whereby many smaller towns main- 
tain four-year junior high schools containing grades 
7, 8, 9, and 10, and a few centrally located, large towns 
or cities maintain six-year high schools containing grades 
7 to 12. The four-year junior high schools are thus 
contributory to the central six-year high schools. By 
this plan the younger pupils are not exposed to the temp- 
tations and inconveniences of travel, while the older 
pupils who are more mature and better able to look out 
for themselves have the advantages of the more varied 
curriculums and the more elaborate equipment furnished 
by the larger high schools. 

In large cities having two or more senior high school 
districts, a better coordination can be worked out be- 
tween junior and senior high schools if one or more 
junior high school districts lie wholly within a given 
senior high school district. 

6. Probable Number of Pupils to be Furnished by the 



Mr. E. F. Guilbert, Architect. 



Contributing Area. — After determining the contributing 
area, an estimate should be made as to the probable 
number of high school pupils who will be supplied by 
that ' area within the next few years. The following 
factors should be taken into consideration : 

(a) The probable increase in the population of that 
area. 

(b) The probable drawing and retentive power of the 
new school on account of : 

(1) Attractive power of new curriculums and activi- 
ties that the new building will make possible. 

(2) Attractive power of the new building itself. 

(3) Retentive power of improved methods of in- 
struction. 

(c) The probable changes in compulsory school laws, 
such as the raising of the compulsory school age. 

Seldom do school boards make sufficient allowance 
for these increases. As a result new buildings are 
generally overcrowded soon after their erection. In 
many communities the high school attendance is rapidly 
approaching the total number of pupils of high school 
age living in the contributing area. There is little 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




de High School, Newark, New Jersey. 



r. E. F. Guilbert, Architect 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




Fig. 117. — South Side High School, Newark, New Jersey. 



Mt.E. F.Guilbcn, Archil, el 



136 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




• BASEMENT • PLAN - 

■ SOUTH • SIDE -HIGH' * SCHOOL— NEWARK: N*J * 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




• FIRST • FLOOR • PL/\N — SOUTH - SIDEHHIGH -SCHOOL — NEWARK. ^ -J, 
Fig. ng. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



doubt that the time is not far distant when the compul- 
sory school age will be raised first to sixteen, and finally 
to eighteen. 

In rapidly growing communities it is not to be expected 
that a high school will be built large enough to provide 
for more than five or ten years of growth. Consequently 
every such school should be so planned that it can be 
economically and efficiently enlarged. For this purpose 
certain facilities should be constructed at the outset 
with reference to the ultimate capacity of the school, 
while other facilities, such as additional classrooms, may 
be deferred. 

II. Internal Organization as Affecting Accommoda- 
tions. — After determining the number of pupils to be 
accommodated, the internal organization of the high 
school should be mapped out by the educational authori- 
ties. If the school which is to occupy the building is a 
new organization and a large one, the principal who is 
to administer it should be selected at once and given 
ample time in which to work out every detail. He should 
visit the best schools in the country and make a scien- 
tific analysis of every problem. He should outline the 
program of studies, estimate the number of pupils likely 
to take each subject, and determine the number of 
classes in each subject, so as to ascertain the size and 
number of rooms needed for each type of work. 

i . Flexibility. — As these estimates can be merely 
provisional, and since secondary education is under- 
going rapid changes as to curriculums, class organization, 
and methods of instruction, no effort should be spared to 
make the building so flexible that changes can be made, 
when necessary, with the minimum of expense. One of 
the best devices for securing flexibility in a building 
consists in placing all heating and ventilating ducts 
in the walls between the rooms and the corridors, making 
partitions between rooms non-supporting. This prin- 
ciple should be regarded as fundamental in all high 
school construction. 

2. Program of Studies. — It would not be possible 
within the limits of this chapter to discuss the principles 
underlying the organization of a modern program of 
studies. Reference may be made, however, to the 
report 1 of the Commission on the Reorganization of 
Secondary Education setting forth the seven main ob- 
jectives of education which should find recognition in 
the work of every high school student. These objectives 
are held to be : Health, command of fundamental 
processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizen- 
ship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. 

Four of these objectives have a direct bearing upon 
buildings, as follows : health demands adequate gymna- 
siums, shower baths, outdoor equipment for games, 

1 Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, 



sanitary and hygienic buildings, and lunch rooms where 
pupils may be seated when they eat; worthy home- 
membership requires equipment for teaching all phases 
of home-making ; vocation calls for a wide variety of 
equipment for commercial, agricultural, and industrial 
curriculums ; and the worthy use of leisure gives a new 
significance to the school library, equipment for school 
dramatics, provision for school bands and orchestras, 
art instruction, and the embodiment of good taste in the 
building itself. 

Among the other factors of school organization which 
have a distinct bearing upon the building we will discuss 
the following, but would caution the reader that the 
conclusions reached must be regarded as tentative. 
It is to be hoped that the analysis here presented will 
stimulate others to make detailed investigations. 

3. Staff of the School. — In order that the building may 
provide for all the activities of the school, there should be 
an analysis of the functions of the staff of the school, 
and rooms other than recitation rooms should be pro- 
vided for certain of these functions. The larger the 
school, the greater should be the subdivision of labor, and 
the more specific should be the provisions in the building 
for the discharge of these functions. The following 
analysis is suggested : 

' Instruction — Teachers 
Supervision of Instruction — Heads 
of departments, and curriculum 
directors 
Educational and vocational guid- 
ance — Director 
Personal service — Dean of girls 
Library service — Librarian and, 
General administra- in the large school, assistant 
tion vested in the ( librarians • 
Principal Clerical service — Clerk or clerks 

Health service — Physical training 
teachers, school physician, and 
school nurse 
Luncheon service — Director and 

employees 
Recreation — Director 
Janitorial service — Janitor and, in 
the large school, assistant janitors 
Heretofore the importance of the functions other than 
instruction has frequently been underestimated. With- 
out curriculum directors instruction has been thought 
of too largely in terms of subjects of study with too little 
reference to the adaptation of these studies to larger 
ends. Educational and vocational guidance has been 
left to the individual teachers without the broader 
prospective which a director could establish. The 

Bulletin 35 for 1018, U. S. Bureau of Education. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF -SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



i39 



administration of the library has been placed in the hands 
of teachers without training in library methods and with- 
out a knowledge of the best books for high school students. 
Inadequate clerical service has overburdened the teachers 
with clerical routine which they are unable to discharge 
effectively. The absence of school nurses makes it 
impossible for the advice of the school physician to be 
carried out. The lunch room must have a competent 
director in order that the health of pupils may be pro- 
moted. A director of recreation can organize school 
pageants and put the recreation of young people on a 
high plane. An adequate janitorial service is necessary 
in order that the building may be sanitary and embody 
high standards of cleanliness. 

Heads of departments, curriculum directors, and the 
director of recreation will ordinarily be teachers who 
give only a part of their time to these administrative 
duties. In the medium-sized school the director of 
educational and vocational guidance and the dean of 
girls may also do some teaching. 

The main office may well accommodate the clerks, 
while the principal and some of the other administrators 
should have offices connecting with the main office. 
In the large school the heads of some of the departments 
should have offices which correlate with the other rooms 
of their respective departments. The offices of heads 
of the English and social studies departments should 
correlate with the library, which is really the laboratory 
for those departments. The offices of the health service 
may well correlate with the gymnasium. 

4. Size of Laboratories and Shops. It is a common 
error to make laboratories and shops too small. Ade- 
quate space in these rooms is necessary in order to 
accommodate a sufficient variety of equipment of proper 
size. Shops should also contain space for the assem- 
bling of large pieces. In rooms for subjects like me- 
chanical drawing and bookkeeping there should be 
space for a few ad/anced students to do some addi- 
tional individual work in their free periods at the same 
time that regular classes are being instructed in the 
same room, as some of this individual work can be con- 
ducted with the occasional help of the teacher. 

In some kinds of shop work and in mechanical draw- 
ing it is often feasible and desirable to place more than 
one teacher in a given room. By so doing younger 
assistants may have the constant advice of more ex- 
perienced teachers. 

The advantages of a general shop containing a wide 
variety of equipment should be considered, especially 
for the small and medium-sized high school. 

5. Size of Classrooms. — The size of classrooms should 
be determined by the size of classes that can be taught 
effectively. As will be discussed later, a classroom should 



not be designed to accommodate study pupils in rear 
seats — a plan sometimes used, but highly inadvisable. 
Neither should classrooms have additional seats in 
order to accommodate more home-room sittings, because 
study halls, commercial rooms, and many rooms de- 
signed primarily as for other special purposes can also 
furnish home-room accommodations, thereby effecting 
great economy and efficiency. The number of home- 
room sittings should be ascertained in every building, 
but the real problem is that of providing a sufficient 
number of rooms, of various types and of proper size, 
for all the activities of the school. 

It may be laid down as a general principle that classes 
of more than 30 pupils are not desirable. It is, however, 
impossible to arrange a schedule so that all classes will 
be uniform in size. Some classes are necessarily quite 
small. ' To avoid having too many small classes, with 
the resulting high cost of instruction, it is necessary in 
some schools to avoid making two sections of a class in 
a given subject when the total number does not exceed 
36 pupils. Since a classroom seating 36 pupils, with 
six rows and six seats in a row, makes a good classroom, 
it may not be inadvisable in some large schools where 
strict economy must be exercised to adopt 36 as the 
standard size for classrooms, but in schools with greater 
financial ability where classes can be kept down in size, 
30 is a wiser standard. 

In medium-sized schools, especially where many of 
the teachers are inexperienced, the standard should not 
exceed 30. 

In small schools, of say less than 200 pupils, it may be 
desirable to reduce the standard to 24-pupil classrooms. 

On account of the large number of small classes found 
in most schools some persons favor the construction of a 
number of small recitation rooms. This practice, how- 
ever, is open to serious objection, because the saving 
effected in space does not compensate for the loss in 
teaching efficiency involved in the change in room every 
time that the teacher has a small class. Progressive 
teachers collect and arrange illustrative material for 
their work, adding greatly to the effectiveness of instruc- 
tion. This material cannot well be moved from room 
to room between periods. 

On the other hand, it will occasionally be found desir- 
able to have classes larger than the standard adopted. 
To accommodate such classes there will be need for a 
few classrooms larger than the standard. Such rooms 
may accommodate 36 pupils in schools where 30 is the 
standard and 30 pupils where 24 is the standard. The 
saving effected by having only a few large rooms and 
keeping the size of all the other classrooms down to a 
smaller standard is very considerable. In fact the saving 
warrants the loss of efficiency involved in the compara- 



140 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



tively few times that a teacher must change rooms because 
of over-sized classes. 

6. Actual Size of Classes. — On account of promo- 
tion by subjects and the variety of courses offered in 
the modern high school there is necessarily considerable 
variation in the size of classes. When the number of 
periods in the school day is increased and the science 
of schedule-making is perfected, it will be possible to 
have less variation than is frequently found to-day, 
thereby increasing the efficiency of the schools. 

The following tables show the actual variations in 
size of classes as revealed by a survey of Massachusetts 
high schools made by the author in 1916-1917. These 
tables give the number of classes and percentage of classes 
of various sizes in 240 high schools. The only public 
high schools not included were the 15 Boston high 
schools in which the conditions were abnormal, and 
one small-sized high school. To show the conditions 
in schools of different sizes the schools were grouped 
as follows : 

Group I. 42 high schools each having over 500 pupils 
Group II. 46 high schools each having 201 to 500 pupils 
Group III. 48 high schools each having 101 to 200 pupils 
Group IV. 52 high schools each having 51 to 100 pupils 
Group V. 52 high schools each having 1 to 50 pupils 



Number 


f Classes of Various Sizes 




(Exclusive of Classes in Music and Physical Training) 








Classes in 




Size of Class 








Group I 


Group II Group III 


Group IV 


Group V 


Total 


1- s pupils 


96 


IOO 


144 


190 


254 


784 


6-10 pupils 


371 


397 


306 


404 


309 


1,787 


n-15 pupils 


96S 


616 


458 


320 


230 


2,589 


16-20 pupils 


1,874 


859 


434 


269 


91 


3,527 


21-25 pupils 


2,181 


754 


292 


130 


36 


3,393 


26-30 pupils 


1,854 


535 


188 


33 


7 


2,617 


31-35 pupils . 


876 


273 


70 


16 


5 


1,240 


Over 35 pupils . 


322 


121 


26 


8 




477 


Total . . 


8,539 


3,655 


1,918 


i,370 


932 


16,414 


Number of high 














schools . . 


42 


46 


48 


52 


52 


240 



Per Cent 


of Classes of Various Sizes 






(Exclusive of Classes in Music and Physical Training) 




Size of Class 


Per Cent, of Classes in 


Group I 


Group II Group Illi Group IV 


Group V 


Total 


1- 5 pupils 


! 


3 


8 


14 


27 


4.6 


6-10 pupils 


4 


II 


16 


29 


33 


IO 


9 


11-15 pupils 


n 


17 


24 


23 


25 


15 


8 


16-20 pupils 


22 


23 


23 


20 


IO 


21 


5 


21-25 pupils 


26 


21 


15 


9 


4 


20 


7 


26-30 pupils 


22 


15 


10 


2 


1 


16 





31-35 pupils . 


10 


7 


4 


1 


1 


7 


6 


Over 35 pupils . 


4 


3. 


1 


1 




2 


9 


Total . . 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


IOO 





Number of high 














schools . . 


42 


46 


48 


52 


52 


240 



From the above tables it appears that : 
3 5 -pupil rooms would accommodate — ■ 

96% of the classes in schools of over 500 pupils. 

97% of the classes in schools of 201 to 500 pupils. 

99% to 100% of the classes in schools of not over 200 
pupils. 
30-pupil rooms would accommodate — 

86% of the classes in schools of over 500 pupils. 

90% of the classes in schools of 201 to 500 pupils. 

95% to 100% of the classes in schools of not over 200 
pupils. 
25-pupil rooms would accommodate — 

85% of the classes in schools of 101 to 200 pupils. 

96% to 98% of the classes in schools of not over 100 
pupils. 

In connection with these tables it should be stated 
that many of the schools did not show such a wide varia- 
tion in size of classes as did others. Some of the schools 
had but five periods in the school day, thus making 
readjustments in the size of classes difficult. On the 
other hand, the vast majority of schools promoted but 
once a year, thereby tending to diminish the number of 
undersized classes. With annual promotions, an in- 
crease in the number of periods in the school day, and 
continual improvement in the science of schedule- 
making, it may be possible to reduce the proportion of 
oversized and undersized classes and consequently to 
increase the proportion of normal-sized classes. 

7. Provisions for Study. — An important factor in 
educational efficiency consists in the success with which 
pupils use the time available for study at school. An 
important factor in the efficiency of a building, there- 
fore, consists in satisfactory provisions for study. To 
solve this problem it is necessary to determine the kind 
of provisions to be made, the number of study-sittings 
required, the most desirable size of study halls, and 
their articulation with the school library. 

(a) Kind of Provisions to be Made. — ■ The different 
methods of providing for study may be analyzed as 
follows : 
In class periods 

(Directed study) In same period and room as 

recitation, and in charge of 
teacher of given subject 
\ Study hall 
Quiet plan j Library 

I Spare classrooms 
Rear-seat plan 

The term directed study may be applied to study in a 
given subject under the direct guidance of, and in the 
recitation room of, the teacher of that subject. This 
type is sometimes called supervised study, but the term 
is not satisfactory because all study should be super- 
vised to some extent. Directed study is coming to be 



In free periods 

(Undirected study) 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




- Grover Cleveland High School, St. L 



Mr. Wm. B. IUner. 



recognized as of great importance, some of the chief 
reasons being as follows : (i) Pupils may be taught the 
most effective methods of work in the particular subject. 

(2) The teacher may gain a clearer idea of the needs of 
the pupils, both individually and collectively, and as 
a result be better able to adapt the work to those needs. 

(3) A better mutual understanding and a more helpful 
attitude may be established between pupil and teacher. 

To provide for directed study the class period, in- 
stead of being only 40 to 50 minutes, is lengthened to 
60 to 90 minutes, thereby providing for both recitation 
and study in the same period without change of room 
during the period. 

The term undirected study may be applied when 
different pupils are studying different subjects in any 
given room and when, as a consequence, the teacher in 
charge generally gives no specific guidance but exer- 
cises only general supervision to see that all the pupils 
keep busy. 

Undirected study should be conducted in study 
halls especially designed and set apart for the purpose, 
or in the library, or in classrooms which are not used 
at the time for recitations. 



The plan whereby rear seats in a classroom are utilized 
for study is objectionable for three reasons: (1) Study 
pupils are not able to concentrate their attention upon 
the work in hand; (2) the teacher is not able to give 
even occasional assistance to the study pupils without 
taking attention away from the recitation group ; and 
(3) the teacher is not able to make the work for the 
recitation group vitally interesting for fear of disturb- 
ing the study pupils. The third of these reasons for 
not using rear seats for study is the most important. 
A teacher once admitted that he had actually abandoned 
a vital and interesting method of teaching a given sub- 
ject because, he said, it was not suitable for use in a 
room in which other pupils were studying. Undoubt- 
edly many other teachers have stultified their methods 
for this reason. Any plan of organization which dis- 
courages good instruction is deplorable. 

In conclusion, therefore, as much of the study as 
possible should be of the first type, namely " directed 
study," and all undirected study should be in study 
halls, or libraries, or classrooms not used at the time for 
recitations. 

(b) Number of Study-sittings Required. — Distinct 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



"1! 



clLai- 






y L 



t-cr 



GROUND FlpOIL PLAN 

G&OVEIL CLEVELAND HI6H 6£H00L 
• ^rr. Lours jm.o 

WM. hlVTfl&^ASJlmTECV- ST LOUIS MO ■ 
Fig. 122. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




FIUST FLOO^PLAN 



GZOVt^ CL&V&LAND HI6IT SCHOOL 

SV- LOUIS- M.O 
WM £. 1 TTiST&L. ARCHITECT. 6T LOUIS . KO ■ 
Fig. 123. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




SECOND FL,OOJL PLAN 



CiROVKL CLEVELAND HI6H SCHOOL 

■ ^T- .LOUIS- M.O • 
WM. B. m/iiiSL*. AXLCHlT^CT ST- JLOUI6. MO • 
Fig. 124. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




THIRD Flooil plan 



vScale.- ij- l'-o" 



£RDV£IL £L£V£LAND HIGH 6CH00L 

5T LOU! 5 MO • 

WM • B • I TTN£fi_ ARCHITECT- Sr LOUIS Mo.., 
Fig. 125. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



i47 



study- sittings need not be provided for directed study, 
as it is conducted in regular classrooms in the length- 
ened school periods. 

In a large well-organized school the number of pupils 
in undirected study need not vary greatly in the dif- 
ferent periods, if the entire plant is used economically. 
Nevertheless there will be some variation. To allow 
for such variation the number of study-sittings should 
probably be from 15% to 25% greater than the average 
number used. In medium-sized schools of from 300 to 
500 pupils, the number of study-sittings might exceed 
the average used by probably 20% to 40%. In any 
period in which this margin does not suffice, it is prob- 
able that classrooms not used for regular classes at that 
time and the library may take care of those who cannot 
be seated in the study halls. 

The average number of pupils who will need study- 
sittings may be obtained by the formula, 

w 
in which 

a = average number of study-sittings, 

p= pupils to be accommodated in the school, 

/ = average number of free periods of each pupil 

per week, 
w= periods in the schedule per week. 
For instance, in a school planned for 1000 pupils, if 
each pupil is likely to have 6 free periods for undirected 
study in a week of 35 periods, then 

Average number of study-sittings occupied = 1000 X 

3 6 5 = i7 I - 

In such a school the study halls should provide for a 
margin of 15 per cent to 25 per cent, or a total of 197 to 
214 pupils. 

(c) Size of Study Halls. — Observation leads the 
author of this chapter to regard as ideal a study hall 
seating 72 pupils, with six rows and twelve seats in a 
row, in which the teacher's desk is on a platform about 
15 inches in height. Aside from the problem of disci- 
pline, a larger study hall is not likely to be efficient, be- 
cause the attention of pupils is diverted to some ex- 
tent by the normal entrance and exit of pupils, and 
by other inevitable interruptions which increase in fre- 
quency as the number of pupils is increased. 

(d) Articulation of Study Halls with the Library. — 
It is of the utmost importance that the study hall should 
articulate with the library by means of a door or pas- 
sageway. By this method a pupil may have free ac- 
cess to the library during any study period without 
the necessity of securing a pass. This plan relieves 
both the teacher in charge of the study hall and the 
librarian of needless clerical work, and results in greatly 

1 Bulletin 50 for 191 7 of the 



increased use of the library. The efficiency of the 
library is greatly impaired under other plans. 

In a school requiring two study halls, they should be 
located with the library between them. If more than 
two study halls are needed, each pupil should have 
certain study periods in those study halls which do 
articulate with the library. 

8. Time- Allotment for Physical Training. — The 
number of pupils who can be accommodated by a given 
gymnasium will depend upon the time-allotment for 
physical training and the length of the school day. 

The efficiency of many high-school gymnasiums is 
reduced almost to the vanishing point by an inade- 
quate time-allotment for the work. A single period of 
40 to 50 minutes makes it impossible for the students 
to change to gymnasium suits, obtain the vigorous 
exercises or recreative games necessary for health, and 
follow these with the shower bath. A period of 60 
minutes is hardly adequate for these purposes, especially 
for the girls, as they require more time than the boys 
for the showers and dressing. The following quotation 
from a report of the Commission on the Reorganization 
of Secondary Education, entitled " Physical Education 
in Secondary Schools," x shows how double periods for 
physical education may be inserted in a high school 
schedule and at the same time put the gymnasium 
floor to continuous use, thereby accommodating the 
maximum number of pupils. 



" Sample Arrangement of Double Gymnasium Periods in a High 
School Schedule 



Ex. 45. 3 Class 43. Class 45. Class 45. Class 



Ex. 45 3 Class 4 



U. S. Bureau of Educatioi 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



" This schedule provides for seven classes of 50 pupils 
each; that is, theoretically 350 pupils per day per 
gymnasium, or 875 different pupils on the basis of two 
double periods per week for each pupil. This arrange- 
ment uses the gymnasium continuously and allows for 
alternation of two teachers in instruction in hygiene, 
physical education practice, and supervision of the bath- 
ing. Three hours of instruction during the school day, 
plus two hours on the playground and in the gymnasium 
or pool after school, should be the maximum require- 
ment for one teacher. The remainder of the day is 
needed for administration and the keeping up of equip- 
ment, records, etc." 

9. Number of Periods in the School Day. — The num- 
ber of periods in the school day has a direct bearing upon 
the accommodations needed. If the school day con- 
tains only five or six periods there will be need for rela- 
tively few study-sittings. With an increase in the num- 
ber of periods more study-sittings will be needed, but 
the number of classrooms may be reduced, as each room 
can be used a greater number of periods. In a large 
school an increase in • the number of periods will also 
decrease the need for duplication of laboratories and 
shops of any given kind, will permit the gymnasium 
to be used for a larger number of classes, and will per- 
mit more extended use of all equipment. 

The number of periods in the school day cannot be sat- 
isfactorily determined without considering the desirable 
length of period and the desirable length of school day. 

(a) Length of Period. — Periods uniformly less than 
40 minutes are generally regarded as too short. The 
majority of accredited high schools have periods 40 to 
50 minutes in length. Moreover, a single period of 40 
to 50 minutes is too short for much of the work in house- 
hold arts, industrial arts, and laboratory science. Con- 
sequently, in the modern school having 40- or 50- 
minute periods, such work as cannot be successfully 
conducted in single periods is given two or three con- 
secutive periods, called double or triple periods. Long 
periods are also necessary for physical training, as in- 
dicated in the preceding section. 

In some schools directed study has been introduced 
in selected subjects, assigning double periods to them. 
If, however, all subjects are given double 40-minute 
periods daily, a very long school day will result. To 
allow for directed study without establishing such a 
long school day, some schools are adopting the 60- 
minute period. This period is well adapted to labora- 
tory work and drawing and some kinds of shopwork, 
while the double 60-minute period is none too long for 
other kinds of shopwork. The 60-minute period, how- 
ever, is not quite long enough for physical training, 
especially for girls' classes. 



A third plan, recommended by the author in a sur- 
vey of the Clinton (Mass.) High School, consists of a 
combination of long and short periods so arranged 
that every subject which comes daily has during the week 
two or three 6 5 -minute periods and three or two short 
40-minute periods. This plan provides for the limited 
introduction of supervised study in such a form as to 
increase the probability of its success, eliminates the 
necessity of scheduling special double periods for labo- 
ratory work, and gives gymnasium periods of 65 and 
80 minutes. (For details, see appendix.) 

(b) Length of School Day. — By the net length of 
the school day we mean the time exclusive of inter- 
missions for lunch or recess. A net school day of less 
than five hours should be condemned as too short. 
It does not permit the school to devote sufficient time 
to physical training, drawing, music, household arts, 
and shopwork. It allows the pupil very little time for 
study at school and for the use of the school library. 
The present tendency may be said to be in favor of a 
school day of six hours net, with a seven-hour day for 
pupils taking a large amount of shopwork. 

The conception that the school day must begin and 
end at the same time for all pupils and for all teachers 
will undoubtedly, and should, disappear in the well- 
organized comprehensive high school. The tendency 
to break down the fixed school day will be further in- 
creased with the development of part-time, or con- 
tinuation education, as pupils will come and go at all 
times in the day. 

In some schools many pupils find it necessary to work 
afternoons. These pupils should have every encourage- 
ment to continue their schooling. At the same time, it is 
not fair to reduce the schooling of the other pupils. 
To adjust the work to these two groups of pupils the 
schedule may be so arranged from year to year that 
pupils who must work afternoons may obtain a com- 
plete high-school course by taking less work each year 
and by spending one extra year in school. By this 
plan they will not be placed under an excessive strain 
and the quality of their work may be preserved, while 
the pupils who can devote all their time to school work 
may complete a standard high-school course in the 
regular number of years. (For details of such a plan, 
see appendix.) 

III. Estimate and Tabulation of Accommodations 
Needed. — ■ After working out the internal organiza- 
tion of the high school, an estimate may be made of the 
number of rooms of each kind needed, the kinds of 
equipment, the number of pupils to be accommodated, 
and finally the area or dimensions of each room. If 
these conclusions are presented in some tabular form 
it will be much easier to analyze, criticize, and com- 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



149 



prehend them, and to check up the sketch plans after 
they are prepared. A brief tabular form is suggested 
in this chapter, but it would probably be desirable to 
add more details regarding equipment and to give 
the area or dimensions of each room. 

1. Multiple Uses. — -Many high-school rooms, if 
used for only one special purpose, would be unoccupied 
most of the time. Furthermore, flexibility of organiza- 
tion is promoted when there is some leeway in the num- 
ber of rooms available for a given purpose. Con- 
sequently, rooms which are not likely to be used con- 
tinuously for the distinctive purpose for which they are 
especially designed should, whenever feasible, be so 
constructed that they may be used at other times for 
some supplementary purpose or purposes. 

In a small or medium-sized high school, it is not fea- 
sible to include so great a variety of rooms as would be 
appropriate in a large high school. If, however, the prin- 
ciple of multiple uses is utilized so that rooms may be 
used continuously, for different purposes at different 
times, then a small building can provide for all the more 
important needs of the school at reasonable cost. 

The application of the principle of multiple uses in 
small high schools may be illustrated as follows : 

(a) Laboratory-Recitation Rooms. — In small and 
medium-sized schools physics laboratories are seldom 
used continuously for physics classes. Blackboards and 
tablet-armchairs are desirable as supplementary equip- 
ment in such a room for classwork in physics. With 
such supplementary equipment, the room may readily 
be used for recitations in other subjects as well. 

Biological laboratories, if equipped with low tables and 
, chairs, may also be used for recitations in other subjects. 

In the small or medium-sized school it is often de- 
sirable to offer physics and chemistry in alternate years. 
Hence, one laboratory may be equipped with convert- 
ible tables and used for both sciences, and also if equipped 
with tablet-armchairs may be used for recitations in 
other subjects. 

(b) Gymnasium- Assembly Hall. — Communities build- 
ing small or medium-sized schools often find that they 
cannot afford to build both an adequate gymnasium 
and an assembly hall large enough for some of the most 
important occasions. In such cases it is far better to 
construct one large room which may be used for both 
purposes. A gymnasium floor should be 50 feet by 
70 or 80 feet with a clear height of not less than 18 feet. 
To serve also as an auditorium, such a room should have 
a stage of generous size. When this room is used for 
games to which spectators' are invited the stage may 
seat the spectators. 



2. Sample Tabulation for a School of About 200 Pupils- 
— Every high school building presents its own problems. 
No solution for one community will apply without 
modification to any other community. 

The following tabulation might apply to a school to 
accommodate 210 pupils, having a staff consisting of a 
principal, eight to ten teachers, including a teacher- 
librarian and physical training teachers devoting part of 
their time to other subjects, and also a clerk and a 
janitor. 













Pupils 


ROOM 


Distinctive 
Purposes 


Supplemen- 
tary Uses 


CHTEr Equipment 


Portion of 
Time Usable 
by Teacher 


Accommo- 


J. 


Gymnasium 


None 


Gymnasium appara- 


i 


None 




Auditorium 




tus, removable seats 








Library 




Bookshelves 
Display boards 
Magazine racks 
Loan desk 
Readers' tables for 30 


librarian 




3 - 


Study hall 


None 


72 deSkS 


Teachers in 
free periods 


72 


4- 


Shop 


None 


Benches 

Diversified power ma- 


\ to all 


None 












s. 


Kitchen 


None ; Ranges 

Refrigerator 




None 








Tables 






6. 


Sewing 


Recitations 


'1 a Mrs and chairs 


All 






Drawing 


Recitations 


Drawing desks 


All 


None 




Bookkeeping 


Recitations 


30 flat-top tables 


All 




9- 


Typewriting 






*to i 






Physical- 


Recitations 


Convertible labora- 


All 






chemical 




tory tables 








laboratory 




Tablet-armchairs 








Biological- 


Recitations 


Plants 


All 






agricultural 




Animals 








laboratory 




Low tables and chairs 








Recitations 




Desks 


All 




13- 


Recitations 




Desks 


All 


3° 



In addition to the above rooms the following ac- 
commodations will be needed. 

1. Principal's office. In the small school, supplies 
and text books may be conveniently kept in closets in 
this room. 

2. Teachers' room. Designed primarily for the women 
teachers, this room may also be used as an emergency 
sick room for students. 

3. Boys' coat room and toilets. 

4. Girls' coat room and toilets. 

5. Dressing room and showers for boys. 1 
Dressing room and showers for girls. 1 
Heating plant, including janitor's office. 
Storage. 
Lunch room. 

It should be noted that only two regular recitation 
rooms are needed in the above scheme. This plan of 
computation is in marked contrast with the usual method 
of beginning with recitation rooms and adding special 

1 Under certain conditions and where great economy is needed, it may be feasible for the boys to use this equipment on certain days and girls 
on other days. The better p'an is to have entirely separate equipment. 



15° 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



rooms. The economy secured by the plan here employed 
is apparent. 

3. Sample Tabulation for a School of About 400 Pupils. 
— In planning a building for 400 pupils, it is not neces- 
sary to utilize the principle of multiple uses as exten- 
sively as in a school to accommodate half the number 
of pupils. 

The following tabulation might apply to a school to 
accommodate 418 pupils, having a staff consisting of a 
principal, sixteen to eighteen teachers, including a 
librarian and two physical training teachers who devote 
a part of their time to teaching other subjects, and also 
a clerk and a janitor. 













Pupils 


ROOM 


Distinctive 
Pdrposes 


Supplemen- 
tary Uses 


Chief Equipment 


Portion of 
Time Usable 
bvt Teacher 


Rooms * 


*• 


Auditorium 


Music 

Public 

speaking 
Dramatics 




i to all 


None 










All 


None 


3. 


Library 




Book shelves 
Loan desk 
Display boards 
Magazine racks 
Readers' tables 


Librarian 




4. 


Study hall 


None 


Desks 


Teachers in 


72 


" 


*~ 




Benches 

Diversified power ma- 
chinery 


All 




6. 


Kitchen 


None 


Tables 
Refrigerators 


All 


None 




Sewing 


Recitations 


Tables and chairs 


All 




8. 


Art 


Recitations 


Drawing tables 
Chairs 


All 


3° 


9- 


Mechanical 
drawing 


Recitations 


Drawing tables 
Chairs 


All 


3° 






Recitations 


Tables 


All 






laboratory 












Chemical 


Recitations 


Tables 


All 


None 




laboratory 




Chairs 








Biological- 


Recitations 


Plants 


All 


3° 




agricultural 












laboratory 




Low tables with chairs 






13- 


Bookkeeping 


Recitations 


Flat-top desks 


All 


40 


14. 


Typewriting 




Typewriters 


i to all 






Recitations 




Desks 


All 




16. 






Desks 


All 






Recitations 




Desks 


All 


30 


18. 


Recitations 




Desks 


All 


30 


19. 


Recitations 




Desks 


All 


30 



In addition to the above rooms the same additional 
accommodations should be provided as were outlined 
for the school with 210 pupils. 

The above tabulations may be suggestive as indicating 
a method of presenting conclusions, but should not be 
taken as indicating the most desirable solution for any 
given community. The importance of adapting a build- 
ing to the needs of the community and of working out 
the organization of the school before making the sketch 
plans cannot be overestimated. 

Appendix. — The following quotation from the eighty- 
second Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of 
Education gives the recommendations of the author 



in his survey of the Clinton (Mass.) High School with 
reference to the length of recitation periods and of the 
school day, the limited introduction of supervised study, 
and special provisions for pupils who must work after- 
noons and evenings. These recommendations have a 
bearing upon the planning of high-school buildings. 

A Schedule Providing for the Limited Introduction 
of Supervised Study. — Supervised study is now recog- 
nized as a desirable feature of secondary education. 
Many schools, however, find serious practical diffi- 
culties in its introduction. If the number of periods 
in the daily schedule is reduced there will be serious 
administrative difficulties, including conflicts in pupils' 
schedules, whereas if the school day is lengthened ex- 
cessively fatigue on the part of both pupils and teachers 
may result. Moreover, few teachers have mastered 
the technique of supervised study, and there is a strong 
tendency on their part to keep the pupils reciting for the 
entire period, thus defeating the purposes for which 
the periods were lengthened. In order to avoid these 
pitfalls and to meet certain other conditions, the follow- 
ing recommendations were made with regard to the 
daily schedule : 

At the present time the high school day begins at 8.15 and closes 
at 1.05. Five minutes are devoted to opening exercises. There 
are six forty-minute periods, with five minutes for change of 
classes between the first and second periods, the third and fourth 
periods, and the fifth and sixth periods, and two fifteen-minute 
recesses between the second and third, and fourth and fifth 
periods. 

I am told that the majority of the families in Clinton have 
their heartiest meal at noon. In view of the fact that pupils 
are unable to reach home until after 1 o'clock they cannot eat 
this meal with the family. Either the householders must keep the 
dinner warm until the arrival of the high school pupils, or else 
these pupils must have a cold dinner. This undoubtedly results 
in undernourishment for a large proportion of the pupils at an 
age when adequate nourishment is a matter of great importance. 
Furthermore, the town of Clinton is so small in area and the high 
school is so centrally located that it would be possible for all 
pupils who live in the town to go home for their dinner if the 
noon period were made about an hour and a quarter in length. 
Consequently, I recommend the adoption of a two-session plan, 
the morning session extending from 8.10 to 12, and the afternoon 
session beginning at 1.15. 

The present tendency is strongly in favor of a longer school 
day in order that pupils may be able to do a larger part of their 
studying at the school, where materials for school work are at 
hand and where they may have the help and guidance of the 
teachers. High school pupils need to be taught how to study. 
Without such instruction they are unable to work to the best 
advantage. This is one of the chief causes for discouragement 
and the dropping out of school. To offset this difficulty "super- 
vised study" is being introduced into many high schools. Ac- 
cording to this plan the recitation period is lengthened to sixty 
or seventy minutes so as to include time for recitation and time 
for study under the direction of the teacher. 

However, if all six periods were lengthened to sixty or seventy 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



151 



minutes, it would make a school day much longer than the present 
high school day at Clinton. I am, therefore, recommending that 
three of the six periods be lengthened to sixty-five minutes each, 
including time for change of classes ; that the other three periods 
be only forty minutes in length, including time for change of 
classes; and that these periods be so arranged that every class 
which has five recitations a week will have two or three sixty-five 
minute periods and three or two forty-minute periods. 

I am also recommending that fifteen minutes be devoted each 
day to setting-up exercises. These exercises are being conducted 
in many schools, and are growing in favor. They do not take 
the place of vigorous gymnasium exercises, but give relaxation, 
increase the circulation, and prevent fatigue. I am suggesting 
that they come after the second period, where they will be most 
useful in checking the fatigue element. 

The lengthening of the school day here recommended is in 
harmony with the present tendency throughout the United 
States. 

Schedule Recommended 

8.10 to 8.15, opening exercises. 

8.15 to 9.20, long period No. 1. 

9.20 to 10.25, long period No. 2. 

10.25 to 10.40, setting-up exercises. 

10.40 to 11.20, short period No. 3. 

11.20 to 12, short period No. 4. 

Noon intermission. 

1. 15 to r.55, short period No. 5. 

1.55 to 3, long period No. 6. 

In order that each subject may share in the longer periods I 
should recommend that the thirty periods in the week be divided 
into six nonconflicting groups designated as A, B, C, D, E, F; 
that the four morning periods, A, B, C, D, occur in alphabetical 
order on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, and in reverse order 
on Tuesday and Thursday ; and that the two afternoon periods, 
E and F, occur in alphabetical order on Monday, Wednesday, and 
Friday, and in reverse order on Tuesday and Thursday. A sub- 
ject assigned to the A, B, or E periods would, therefore, have three 
long periods and two short periods, while a subject assigned to 
the C, D, or F periods would have two long periods and three 
short periods. 



physical training. The other short period, namely, the fifth 
period, should not be used for gymnasium work, as it comes too 
soon after dinner. 

As a slight modification of the above schedule, the two long 
periods on Friday morning could be shortened to provide for an 
assembly period. Even then every subject coming daily would 
have two long periods each week. 

Special Provision for Pupils Who Must Work After- 
noons and Evenings. — In many high schools the most 
serious objection to supervised study and the longer 
school day is due to the fact that many pupils must, 
or think they must, earn money while attending school. 
For such schools the following plan, recommended for 
Clinton, may be suggestive : 

A very large proportion of the pupils in the Clinton high school 
are working afternoons, or evenings, or both, as may be seen from 
the following table : 

Pupils Working Afternoons, or Evenings, or Both 



Period 


Monday 


Tuesday 


Wednesday 


Thursday 


FRIDAY 


Morning 

3 

Afternoon 
5 


A 

B 
C 
D 

E 
F 


D 
C 
B 
A 

F 
E 


A 
B 
C 
D 

E 

F 


D 
C 
B 
A 

F 
E 


A 
B 
C 
D 

E 
F 



This schedule provides for supervised study. It allows suffi- 
cient time for laboratory work in the sciences without the necessity 
of scheduling so-called double periods for this purpose. Further- 
more, it makes possible effective work in physical training. Pupils 
cannot obtain the kind of physical training that they need unless 
they have time in which to put on gymnasium suits, to take vigor- 
ous exercises, and to follow the exercise with the shower bath. 
The sixty-five minute period gives sufficient time for this purpose. 
The third and fourth periods separately would be too short, but 
combined as a double period they would give eighty minutes for 





Freshmen 


Sophomores 


Juniors 


Seniors 


Totals 


Boys 
Attendance . . 
Working . . . 
Per cent working 


28 
16 
57 


22 
18 
82 


13 

85 


18 
18 


81 
63 
78 


Girls 












Attendance . . 
Working . . . 
Per cent working 


44 
5 


29 
7 
24 


28 
6 
21 


29 
17 
59 


130 
35 
27 


Totals 












Attendance . . 
Working . . . 
Per cent working 


72 
29 


51 

25 

40 


41 
17 
41 


47 
35 
74 


98 
46 



For pupils who must earn a part or all of their support in order 
to continue in school, some adjustment should be made in the 
distribution of their time and energy. If they attempt to carry 
the full amount of school work, either the quality of that work is 
likely to deteriorate, or there is likely to be a serious drain upon 
health and vitality. The superintendent of schools and the act- 
ing high school principal assure me that they have observed a 
deterioration in the quality of the work of these pupils. On the 
other hand, it would be unfair to pupils devoting their entire time 
to school work to reduce the amount of work that they may do 
to the amount that can be carried successfully by the other pupils. 
The schedule recommended above is so arranged that certain 
subjects come entirely in the morning and others entirely in the 
afternoon. Therefore, a pupil who must work in the afternoon 
can carry in the morning as much work as he can do successfully. 
As a rule, it would be wiser for these pupils to undertake each 
year three-quarters of the full amount of high school work and 
maintain a good standard of scholarship, rather than attempt the 
full amount of work and either fail in part of it or do work of an 
inferior quality. There is little educational value in inferior work . 
With this plan they may complete the high school course in five 
years without sacrificing the quality of their work. With the 
elimination of the ninth grade these pupils will complete the ele- 
mentary and high school work in thirteen years, the time hereto- 



152 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 



i53 



fore required of all pupils. On the other hand, the pupil who 
can devote all his time to school work may complete the course in 
twelve years. 

It may be observed also that the proposed schedule permits 
the pupils who must work afternoons to obtain a hot dinner at 
the regular time instead of hurrying home at 1 o'clock, eating a 
cold lunch, and then hurrying to work. Adequate nourishment 
is certainly of prime importance to these young persons who are 
both studying and working. 

In order that pupils who work afternoons may not be deprived 
of any subjects offered by the school, it is recommended that 



subjects given only in the afternoon in one year be placed in the 
morning the next year. 

As explained later in this report, a pupil who is obliged to work 
afternoons the last year or the last two years only may, if he 
maintains a good record in the earlier years, be able to graduate 
in four years. 

The adoption of the above plan actually resulted in attend- 
ance for the full school day on the part of all but a very few 
pupils. In other words, when pupils found that they could carry 
only part of their work on a single session plan they decided to 
attend both morning and afternoon. 



' DAOEi/AEi/iT - PLAA1 




Fig. 127. — Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon. 



Messrs. WhUehiiiisi mitl '•'utiilliour, Architects. 



154 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




- riQ^T - fLOOD-pi-An 



Fig. 128. — Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon. 



ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 




^Oeco^id^Hqdd-R, 



Fig. 129. — Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon. 



Messrs. Whltehuus, unit Fuuillmui, 



i56 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




^~ Tl-tlED -^fLciDla^pA. 



Fig. 130. — Lincoln High School, Portland, Oregon. 



Messrs. WMlehouse and Fouilhoux 



CHAPTER VIII 
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 

By J. D. Wright, Acting Assistant Director for Industrial Education, Federal Board for Vocational Education 

I. General Education and Vocational Education, i. Types of Vocational Schools or Glasses. 2. Function of the Vocational 
School. 3. Agencies Promoting Vocational Education. 

II. Trade and Industrial Schools or Classes. 1. Industrial School Buildings versus General School Buildings. 2. Types 
of Schools and Buildings: (1) Types of Schools; (2) Types of Buildings in General Use. 3. The Problem of Equipment: 
(1) Type Equipment; (2) What Kind of Tools Should Be Provided; (3) The General Industrial School; (4) Obligation of the 
Local Community. 4. New Building for Trade or Industrial Education : (1) Location; (2) Construction; (3) The Factory Type 
of Industrial School ; (4) Division of the Interior ; (5) Kinds of Rooms and Relative Floor Space ; (6) Replies to Questionnaire. 5. 
Building and Equipment for a Trade or Industrial School: (1) The General Plan; (2) A Typical Shop; (3) General Specifica- 
tions; (4) Machine Shop; (5) Carpentryand Cabinetmaking ; (6) Electrical; (7) Printing; (8) House Painting and Decorating; 
(9) Sheet Metal; (10) Plumbing; (n) Pattern Making; (12) Related Subjects; (13) The General School; (14) Old Buildings, 
Factories, or Industrial Plants as Temporary Quarters; (15) The Part-time School; (16) The Evening Industrial School. 6. A 
Few Type Buildings : (1) The Worcester Boys' Trade School ; (2) The David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades; (3) The 
Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades ; (4) The Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades ; (5) The William Hood Dun woody 
Industrial Institute; (6) Milwaukee Boys' Technical High School; (7) The New Bedford Vocational School; (8) The Bayonne 
Vocational School ; (9) The Wentworth Institute ; (10) The Pullman Free School ; (n) The Boys' Vocational School. 7. Trade 
and Industrial Schools for Girls : (1) Manhattan Trade School ; (2) Milwaukee Public School of Trades for Girls ; (3) Worcester, 
Mass., Girls' Trade School; (4) Jane Hayes Gates Institute. 

III. Buildings and Equipment. 1. Types of Schools. 2. Types of Buildings: (1) Smith Agricultural School; (2) Plan of 
Combination Laboratory and Recitation Room ; (3) Shop Building, Sterling, Colo. ; (4) A Combination Shop Suggested. 

IV. Home Economics. 1. The Purpose of Vocational Home Economics Schools: (1) Home-making Activities. 2. Schools 
Teaching Home Economics: (1) Day Schools.; (2) Part-time Schools; (3) Evening Schools. 3. Types of All-day Schools: (1) 
Separate Schools of Home-making ; (2) Home-making Departments of Trade Schools ; (3) Home-making Departments of Element- 
ary and Secondary Schools. 4. Modifications of Equipment : (1) In a High School ; (2) Essential Points ; (3) The Practice House ; 
(4) Cafeterias and Lunch Rooms. 5. Standards in the Selection and Equipment of Rooms for Home Economics Instruction : 
(1) Location; (2) Size; (3) Lighting; (4) Ventilation; (5) Wall Finishes. 



I. General Education and Vocational Education 



aims of elementary and high schools include many 
motives which are not germain to vocational training. 

General Education and Vocational Education. — Many high schools have as a definite aim the prepa- 

School architects and school administrators are often ration for entrance to higher institutions of a large 

called upon to assume the responsibility for the design number of pupils who are at least potential candidates 

of new buildings. Modern school buildings are no for entrance into such institutions. Education and 

longer thought of in terms of a single classroom. Prob- training of this character does not primarily concern 

lems of construction in heating, lighting, ventilation, itself, as does vocational education, with the prepara- 

and sanitation have all become secondary to the larger tion of youth for immediate self-support in a deter- 

problem of adaptability. What educational function mined-upon occupation. 

is the building to serve? What are the needs of this In a sense it is true that all education, provided the 
phase of education for which the architect must make educative process is well planned and well executed, is 
provision in his plans and specifications? To answer preparation for citizenship and for vocational activi- 
these questions a general knowledge of the kinds of ties, but it should be clear that the dominant aims of a 
education and a distinction between their functions person or group of persons at any given time should de- 
would seem to be necessary. termine the content and the method of the appropriate 

General Education, properly directed and controlled, educational process, 

aims to improve general intelligence. Vocational edu- When an individual starts upon his life work, either by 

cation, on the other hand, aims to make an intelligent definite preparation for a particular vocation or by 

producer, either of commodities or of services. The actual participation in the work of that vocation, his 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



interest in studies possessing exclusively a general or 
interpretative value is eclipsed by the immediate focus- 
ing of his attention and by the concentration of his 
efforts upon vocational interests. 

Except in the case of a few professions, such as law, 
theology, and medicine, until comparatively recent 
times, men have learned vocations by entering upon 
them. During the last century, however, there has 
been a rapid growth of vocational schools of many 
kinds, such as normal schools, dental colleges, pharma- 
ceutical schools, training schools for nurses, engineer- 
ing schools, agricultural schools, and business schools. 
As society has developed needs for the services of per- 
sons trained in special vocations, schools, either private 
or public, have been established to prepare persons who 
have chosen for a life work, service in particular voca- 
tional fields. Vocational schools have not been organ- 
ized, however, until the vocations themselves have de- 
veloped a content, technique, or method to such an ex- 
tent that adequate preparation could no longer be given 
by apprenticeship or shop-training methods. 

It must be assumed as axiomatic that vocational 
education is intended and provided for individuals 
who have made definite vocational choices, and for such 
individuals only. 

A clear understanding that this determination of aim 
is an essential prerequisite to effective vocational train- 
ing of an individual would clear up much confusion which 
now exists as a result of the use of the term " voca- 
tional " to describe certain subjects of study in the 
general elementary or secondary school, such as manual 
training or mechanical drawing and shopwork, which 
are pursued by those who probably have not yet se- 
lected a vocation. While the educational value of ' 
these and other " practical " subjects is not questioned, 
there rests clearly upon the school and the community 
an obligation to set up adequate means to help the 
pupil and his parents to determine wisely upon specific 
vocational preparation. 

Types of Vocational Schools or Classes. — Vocational 
education is. for two distinct groups of students. Boys 
and girls enrolled in public schools who are preparing to 
enter a particular occupation may be given instruction 
in all-day vocational schools; and workers who have 
already entered upon employment may be given voca- 
tional training in part-time and evening schools. 

The public cosmopolitan high school can, under fa- 
vorable conditions, undertake courses of one to four 
years, provided a separate department for the voca- 
tional courses is created, and provided such courses are 
supported by a sufficiently broad conception of com- 
munity needs on the part of those charged with this 
sort of secondary education. Such a high school will 



assume its full responsibility if the vocational courses 
meet two sorts of community needs : first, those of the 
youth in that community who will seek employment 
before or at completion of the high school course, and, 
secondly, those of the industries of that community 
for greater efficiency in their labor force. 

Schools for workers are of two types. First, those 
for persons who are employed under such conditions 
that they can give a part of the regular hours of em- 
ployment to educational work, and secondly, those for 
persons who must secure their further education, if at 
all, outside regular working hours. The former are 
part-time schools, the latter evening schools. 

Function of the Vocational School. — While vocational 
schools are in general organized to fit the individual 
for profitable employment, they are specifically directed 
towards assisting two types of individuals; first, those 
who are preparing to enter employment; second, those 
who are already employed. 

To prepare young men and women for employment 
we must have special schools or departments with an 
extensive equipment and buildings. These must ap- 
proach as near as possible the actual conditions of the 
industry, the home, or the farm. 

In the trades and industries, the responsibility for 
training workers has been rapidly shifting from the 
industry itself to other agencies both public and private. 
This change has been, in a large measure, the direct 
result of industrial development and in the interest of 
more technical skill on the part of the worker. 

The large number and variety of industrial occupa- 
tions for which training may be given presents a much 
larger problem in the erection of buildings, and pur- 
chase of equipment, than exists in the organization 
of other kinds of vocational schools. As a result of this 
condition, trade and industrial schools have too often 
confined their activities to certain typical occupations 
such as the building trades, the metal trades, and print- 
ing trades, while those special industries in which a very 
large part of the population of the community is en- 
gaged, such as textile mills, mining, or manufacturing, 
are neglected. To meet the vocational needs of the 
community, the school must possess buildings and 
equipment which will bring the pupil into close contact 
with trade conditions. 

When well organized and equipped with machinery 
and laboratory facilities and supplied with qualified 
teachers, the school should enable the pupil to secure an 
advantageous entrance into industry. 

Home economics schools are intended to prepare girls 
for useful employment as home makers and house 
daughters engaged in the occupations of the home. 
The organization of these schools is much more simple 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



159 



in its requirements in the selection of equipment and 
the design of suitable buildings or departments. 

In vocational agriculture the school must be pre- 
pared to give the boys a practical experience in farm- 
ing. It must therefore have farm lands, farm animals, 
farm machinery, and a laboratory in which to conduct 
farm experiments. 

Agencies Promoting Vocational Education. — It might 
be assumed that the responsibility rests upon the in- 
dividual to provide his or her own educational oppor- 
tunities, or upon the family for the education of the 
children. In our social progress we have long recog- 
nized the individual as a member of society, a part 
of the community, and one whose efficiency not only 
determines his own position in life but one who, to- 
gether with many others, determines the success of the 
whole community, the state, and nation. 

The community as an entity depends upon the pros- 
perity and intelligence of its citizenship. Industry 
demands a supply of skilled workers as well as materials. 
These workers must be provided if new business is to 
be secured. The individual has grown to look to the 
local government for his elementary and secondary 
education. 

On the other hand, states have recognized that their 
wealth and prosperity are dependent upon the com- 
munities within their borders, and that many workers 
are migratory, and that it is therefore necessary for the 
state to provide uniform educational facilities. 

No less than either of these is the responsibility of the 
Federal government for the development of our natural 
resources in farm lands and minerals, and for the im- 
provement in methods of operation in production, in 
manufacture, in transportation, and in selling our prod- 
ucts in the markets of the world. 

The communities have for many years given to the 
people full opportunities for general education. It 
has even made attendance compulsory in some states 
to the age of sixteen. 

Previous to the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act for 
vocational schools, several states had enacted laws giv- 
ing state aid to the communities in the payment of a 
part of the cost of vocational education. The Federal 
Act does not provide for the organization of schools 
direct, but does make provision for giving aid to the 
states and local communities in the payment of a part 
of the salaries of approved teachers in these schools. 

This aid is given under certain general conditions of 
approval : 

1. All schools receiving Federal aid must be under public super- 
vision and control. 

2. The controlling purpose must be to fit for useful employment. 

3. The instruction must be of less than college grade. 



4. The instruction must be designed to meet the needs of 
persons over 14 who have entered upon or who are preparing to 
enter upon a vocation. 

5. Every dollar of Federal funds must be matched by a dollar 
of state or local funds, or both. 

6. Reimbursement for the salaries of teachers will be made to 
schools only for those teachers who meet the qualifications set 
up in the state plan as approved by the Federal Board. 

7. That the state or local community, or both, shall provide 
the necessary plant and equipment determined upon by the state 
board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education. 

II. Trade and Industrial Schools or Classes 

Industrial School Buildings vs. General School Build- 
ings. Comparative Floor Space Required. — Standards 
for general school buildings require fifteen to twenty- 
four square feet of floor space, and two hundred to two 
hundred and fifty cubic feet of air space per pupil in the 
classroom. 

These values are based upon many years of experience 
with the general school. The usual classroom is ap- 
proximately 22 by 32 feet and accommodates 45 pupils. 
This space is inadequate for industrial shop classes. 
During the past 20 years manual training has come into 
the course of study as a supplementary type of general 
education, with one to three hours per week in the 
upper grades of the elementary schools and three to 
five per week in the high school. It is not possible to 
give in these classes more than general principles and to 
lead the pupil to an appreciation of industrial problems. 
Conclusions based on experience in manual training 
schools do not furnish an adequate basis for determining 
the amount of floor space needed in trade and indus- 
trial schools. 

Floor Space in Existing Schools. — In elementary 
schools manual training shops have usually been placed 
in class or basement rooms, many of which are small 
and possess poor light, heat, and ventilation. In high 
schools architects usually make more adequate pro- 
vision for shops than in elementary schools. 

The following table shows the floor space given to 
different shops in several existing cosmopolitan high, 
technical high, and trade schools. 

Square Feet of Floor Space 



School 


™F 


Turn- 
ing 


'r- 


Ma- 


SSL 


Mason- 
ry 


Pat- 


Soldan High, St. Louis, 
Mo 

Northeast High, Kansas 
City, Mo 

David Ranken, Jr., 
School of M. T., St. 

Milwaukee Trade School, 
Milwaukee, Wis. . . 


2,180 

1,794 

4,324 
5,336 


2,440 
1,716 


1,800 
1,056 

Plumb- 
4,3" 
5,336 


1.716 

5,i7o 
5,336 


2.450 
5.336 


2,450 


2,116 

5,336 



i6o 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Need for Industrial School Buildings. — The rapid 
growth of industrial schools is a development of the 
educational system designed to meet the demand in the 
industries for more skilled workmen, foremen, and 
superintendents. 

The situation is rapidly becoming serious and must 
be met by a system of industrial training which will 
supply the ever-increasing demands of industry for 
intelligent man power. To meet this demand, trade 
and industrial schools are needed. Pupils must be 
given such experience and trade training as will fit 
them to enter successfully upon industrial employ- 
ment. This new education requires a new type of school 
building. 

Types of Schools and Buildings. Types of Schools. 
— The Federal and State acts provide for all-day, 
part-time, and evening vocational schools. Build- 
ings which meet the needs of the all-day school will 
usually be satisfactory for part-time and evening classes. 
Where part-time classes are organized for general edu- 
cation, the ordinary classroom will be suitable. Since 
trade extension and related subjects are usually given 
in the part-time or evening school, it is desirable to 
provide facilities for these subjects in all new or re- 
modeled buildings. 

Types of Buildings in General Use. — The trade or 
industrial training may be given in a separate school 
or in a separate department of a general school. Where 
the work is given in a separate school, three kinds of 
plants are to be found in this country : The special 
building erected for the purpose, usually by an issue of 
bonds ; the old factory building remodeled for the 
purpose ; and the abandoned schoolhouse which has 
outlived its usefulness for general education and is re- 
modeled to serve temporarily for industrial training. 

The Special School Building. — Such schools as 
the Williamson Trade School near Philadelphia, the 
Wentworth Institute at Boston, the William Hood 
Dunwoody Institute at Minneapolis, which are pri- 
vate schools; and the Worcester (Mass.) Trade School 
for Boys, and the Milwaukee Trade School for Boys, 
which are publicly supported, are quartered in special 
buildings built for the purpose. 

This seems to be a wise and safe course to pursue in 
cases where the local authorities are certain that they 
know just what kind of a building is needed to meet the 
local situation. It insures proper conditions for doing 
the work from the start. There is danger that the 
building will not meet the changing conception of the 
service which the school should give its pupils. Ex- 
perience seems to show that where a special building is 
erected as a general trade school for giving industrial 
education, it is advisable to build on a unit basis, each 



unit being devoted to one or more trades, and new 
units being added from time to time to meet the needs 
of the school. 

In some cities the tendency is toward a unit trade 
school for printing, for machinists, for textile workers, 
and for other trades for which the local community 
needs skilled men or women. 

Converted Buildings. — The New Bedford and Spring- 
field, Mass., independent industrial schools, and the 
Industrial School at Rochester, N. Y., occupy old 
factory buildings which have been remodeled so as to 
provide for a time at least fairly adequate accommoda- 
tions for the school. This method of housing the work 
can be resorted to successfully in communities where 
funds are not available to provide a special building, 
or when the school authorities have not determined 
upon the kind of a plant required to meet their chang- 
ing ideas of what the school should do. 

The old factory building, however, is often poorly 
adapted to school purposes. Sometimes the location 
is bad; usually the lighting poor and the heating 
arrangements inadequate. Such a building should 
properly be regarded as a makeshift or device to be 
used for a brief period as the first step in the intro- 
duction of industrial education in the community. 

Many cities have found it advantageous to organize 
their first industrial schools in old schoolhouses which 
have been remodeled. This method of introducing 
industrial education is good when the community is 
carrying on a small experiment or beginning the work. 
By beginning in this way, school authorities are able 
to find out what should be done on a large scale in the 
case of each kind of trade training. Further, an op- 
portunity is thus given to prove the worth of the work 
before larger public funds are asked for. 

Abandoned schoolhouses are seldom adapted to vo- 
cational work. The fighting is usually poor ; the rooms 
are not the right shape and size ; and the construction 
of the building is not adapted to the installation and use 
of machinery. 

Some states are attempting to solve the problem of 
industrial education by utilizing separate departments in 
general high schools. While the children in the depart- 
ment of vocational education might well participate 
in the social activities of the school, the best results 
will be secured when their training is given in a dis- 
tinct unit of the building, erected or set apart for this 
purpose. The difference in the character of the work 
which they are carrying on requires such a separation 
for most of the day. 

Whenever plans are being made which provide for a 
department of vocational education in a general school 
building, the same care should be given to the con- 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



161 



struction and equipment as in the case of a special 
school. As near as possible the shops should be located 
on the ground floor and away from classrooms. A 
separate outside wing will enable the architect to pro- 
vide necessary facilities better than an inside room. 

The Problem of Equipment. Type Equipment. — How 
much equipment is needed? If the pupil is to be 
adjusted to meet the demands of industry, his training 
must be real. To be real, the training must be given 
in a shop making things on a useful or productive basis. 
Schools giving training in such subjects as woodwork- 
ing, metal working, electrical work, etc., can readily 
find use for the work of the pupils either in the building 
itself or in the school system. Every school should make 
a part of its own equipment. This has been done by 
most of the industrial and trade schools. Enough 
equipment ought to be bought at the outset to start 
the work and to enable the school to operate on a pro- 
ductive basis. 

Where schools find themselves with limited resources 
at the start, some second-hand equipment for use in the 
first year of the course can be bought. In the other 
years of the course it is necessary to secure the very 
latest and best machinery, so that when the boy leaves 
the school he will be familiar with the latest equipment 
and able to take his place in industry. 

One of the handicaps under which the school shop 
must always labor is that of keeping its machinery fully 
abreast of the best equipment of the commercial shop. 
It is doubtful whether this can ever be done success- 
fully. Under the stress of competition; the commercial 
shop changes its equipment from time to time. With- 
out such competition the school is very likely to re- 
main content with machinery that is out of date. 

This is one of the strongest reasons why the part- 
time scheme of education which enables a boy to ob- 
tain the most of his practical training in the industry 
itself promises to be effective in dealing with the great 
body of wage earners between 14 and 18 years of age. 
The old trades, in which men were able to obtain ex- 
perience with all the different tools, machines, and pro- 
cesses of their callings, are rapidly disappearing. Mod- 
ern industry does not give the worker a chance to get a 
broad experience in working with different machines. 
The typical boy who comes to the part-time school is 
one who is spending his entire time at one machine, 
making one small part or portion of the final output 
of the factory. 

The school must always take the boy as it finds him 
and give to him the training he needs. In giving part- 
time instruction to the worker at the specialized ma- 
chine, the school, if it is to meet modern industrial 
conditions, must under the school roof provide a suffi- 



cient amount of equipment to enable the boy to ac- 
quire the elementary practice and experience at the 
machines and with the tools and in the processes which 
the shop denies him and which are necessary to his in- 
sight, interest, and growth in the occupation. All 
experience goes to show also that a minimum amount 
of the equipment must necessarily be under the school 
roof in order that the teacher may closely correlate 
and connect the instruction which he is giving with 
the shop processes. 

What Kind of Tools Should Be Provided. — One 
great mistake which many manual training and tech- 
nical high schools have made, and which industrial 
schools are in danger of making, is that of providing a 
large number of tools and machines of one kind rather 
than a smaller number of different tools and machines. 
The same amount of money put into a more , varied 
equipment would enable the school, whether it be a 
manual training school or trade school, to deal with 
pupils individually, so as to give each a wider range of 
experience with different machines, to substitute the 
individual for the group method of instruction, and to 
approximate more nearly the conditions of real shop- 
work so necessary in the successful training of skilled 
workers in industry. 

The General Industrial School. — The Federal Voca- 
tional act provides that for cities of less than 25,000 
population the state board, with the approval of the 
Federal Board, may modify the conditions as to length 
of course and hours of instruction per week. 

In making such modifications, the number of hours 
of instruction per week must in no case be less than 
25, or the number of hours of instruction per day less 
than 5, a total of 300 minutes. Where no large employ- 
ing industry exists in these cities general industrial 
schools may be organized. This type of school gives to 
the pupil a general training in industrial subjects. One- 
half of the five-hour day must be given to shopwork 
on a useful and productive basis. 

This is the only type of industrial school which seems 
feasible in cities of this size, because in most cases there 
is not enough demand on the part of any industry for 
new employees to justify unit trade training, as in the 
case of an all-day trade school, where a boy spends all of 
his time training as a machinist, carpenter, plumber, or 
printer. In the general industrial school, the idea is to 
fit the boy with some experience in shopwork in several 
typical trades, such as carpentry, electrical work, auto- 
mobile work, and in connection with this shopwork to 
give him instruction in related drawing, science, and 
mathematics, and in such nonvocational subjects as 
are needed for a well-rounded course of instruction. 

To carry out this scheme the school shop, instead of 



l62 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



having a carpenter shop filled with carpenter benches 
and a printing shop full of printer's cases, would be 
equipped with the small number of tools and machines 
necessary to give, in an elementary way, experiences in 
several different occupations. 

Obligation of the Local Community. — In establishing 
a trade or industrial school, department, or class, the 
state or local community must assume the responsi- 
bility of providing the necessary plant and equipment. 
This must be adequate to meet the needs of the "class 
for the trade to be taught. 

Where schools are approved for state and Federal 
aid in payment of the salaries of teachers of vocational 
subjects, the local community should be able to supply 
adequate buildings and equipment. 

New Building for Trade or Industrial Education. 
Location. - — In locating a new trade or industrial school, 
care should be taken to locate the plant on a site suffi- 
ciently large to provide for additional units needed to 
meet the growth of the school. The site should be chosen 
so as to accommodate the entire city from the stand- 
point of street car and other facilities. Experience shows 
that industrial schools can cooperate with industry 
to a greater advantage when the school is situated near 
an industrial center. This, however, does not warrant 
locating vocational schools in districts where the social 
and sanitary conditions are undesirable. 

In the preparation of bulletin No. 20 for the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, a questionnaire was 
sent to nine industrial or trade schools of different types 
asking, among other things, for an opinion as to " what 
factors should determine the selection of a site for a new 
trade or industrial school? " The replies of the schools 
are given in separate paragraphs below. 

"Avoid crowded space. The plant should be far removed 
from saloons, pool halls, and other things that tend to distract 
pupils. The school should be accessible to its pupils. This is 
particularly desirable for evening school instruction to day 
workers. A spur track is desirable." 

"Avoid dangerous influences, questionable neighborhoods, etc. 
Locate site near good car lines. Have ample space for recreation 
and future additions. Give the school as fortunate surroundings 
as would be given to any other school." 

"Accessibility for majority of pupils who would attend. Near 
business center. Proximity to factories or industrial center is 
not important factor. Should have as much dignity as a high 
school site." 

" Kind of trades to be taught — - manufacturing or building. 
If the school is cooperative, locate near industrial plants ; if all- 
day school, this factor need not be considered." 

"Should be accessible to street cars. Away from factories 
using soft coal. Away from tenements where many children are 
in the street. Adjacent to business section. Accessible to cus- 
tomers and pupils. Site should be large enough for outdoor 
activities." 

"If possible, avoid noisy factory districts. Within one block - 



of transportation. Lot to have room for recreation, light, ventila- 
tion. The residential district of the pupils." 

" Good car service. Facilities for cooperating with industries. 
Character of the neighborhood should be such as to bring the 
pupils into contact with no undesirable influences. Grounds 
should be large so as to accommodate the school for the present 
and future, and give light, ventilation, and space for recreation." 

"Avoid a noisy, sooty, squalid district. The site should be 
accessible and near manufacturing plants. Good environment 
and located so as to come within the general notice of the public." 

"Good car service. Large area to allow for good athletic 
field and for expansion. In industrial center." 

Construction. — It is not the writer's intention to 
set up plans and specifications for the construction of 
buildings which may be used for trade or industrial 
schools, but rather to call the attention of architects 
and school administrators to some conditions which 
increase the efficiency of the plant and equipment. 

Many states have laws regulating the construction of 
factories and public school buildings. These regulations 
should be observed in connection with the local build- 
ing code. 

Architects and school authorities should study the 
characteristics of the modern trade school, and incor- 
porate in the design of proposed buildings such require- 
ments as have been found necessary to meet the demands 
of trade training. In planning a new building, the 
architect should provide shop-floor space of from 100 to 
300 square feet per pupil, depending upon the particular 
kind of industrial work for which the shop is to be used. 
In shops requiring the installation of woodworking or 
metal-working machinery, a larger floor space must be 
available. Ceilings should be constructed varying 
from 12 to 32 feet in height. Rooms for class recitation, 
mechanical drawing and laboratories should provide a 
floor space of from 25 to 90 square feet per pupil. In 
planning a new school building, care should be taken 
to provide for adequate tool and stock rooms in which to 
store all of the general tools and stock used for instruction 
in the shop. Tool and stock rooms should be provided 
with shelving and lockers suited to the needs of the par- 
ticular industry for which the shop is used. As a part 
of their course in any trade pupils should be given instruc- 
tion in the care of the tool and stock rooms, so that they 
may be taught to preserve and care for their own tools 
and equipment. A detailed description of shops for 
various trades will be given later in this chapter. 

The Factory Type of Industrial School. — The con- 
struction of the factory type must be of such a 
character as to provide a large amount of light. Extra 
light may be obtained in one-story buildings by means 
of northern sawtoothed skylights, and thus avoid the 
glare of the direct sunlight. Windows should be 
planned to occupy as much of the exterior wall space 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



163 



as the construction and architecture of the building 
will permit. It is desirable that the windows be of 
factory construction with small panes, so that accidental 
breakage will not cause large expense for replacement. 
In the construction of the floors, a knowledge of the 
purpose for which the room is to be used is necessary. 

Each individual trade should be considered from the 
standpoint of its needs under commercial conditions, 
and the plan made to provide necessary floor space, 
light, door openings for admission of large work, and 
freight elevator service. 

Architects should not specify cement floors for shops 
in which edged tools are to be used, as it is impossible 
to avoid dropping tools on the floor. Whenever possible, 
wooden floors are preferable in such cases. Floors in 
which heavy machinery is to be installed should be 
designed to sustain the floor load weight with a sufficient 
safety factor to support future additions to the equip- 
ment. It is not always necessary or desirable to plaster 
interior walls. Machinery and fixtures are much more 
easily adjusted in shops where the walls are left with a 
brick finish. The roof construction, like the floors, 
necessitates on the part of the architect a knowledge 
of the purpose fpr which the room is to be used. Pro- 
visions should be made for numerous inserts in the ceil- 
ing and for suspending shaft hangers from steel girders 
whenever metal-working machinery is to be installed. 

Ample locker space, wash and toilet rooms should 
be provided. The requirements for sanitation should 
be carefully observed. In planning the wash and toilet 
rooms of the new buildings, a careful study should be 
made of the flushing systems, and the location should 
be convenient to the shop rooms. It is not desirable 
to place wash rooms or toilets in basements where the 
problems of sanitation are greatly increased. 

The power plant installed in a new building offers an 
opportunity for giving courses in power-plant operating 
in steam and electricity, and therefore should be installed 
with these courses in mind. The engine room should 
be large and well lighted, and in most cases should be 
located so as to be convenient to the electrical depart- 
ment. This will permit the use of the generators, motors, 
and the switchboard for testing purposes in power-plant 
operating. 

Schools engaged in project work will often find it 
necessary in the construction of certain projects to 
utilize several shops for the different kinds of work in- 
volved. When the building is planned, the shops 
should therefore be located with these conditions in 
mind, so that the least amount of confusion will result 
in moving projects from one shop to another. 

It is recognized that the amount of light required 
per square foot in industrial plants is usually larger 



than in other buildings. Schools located in northern 
latitudes require more glass surface for natural light 
than do those located in central or southern latitudes. 
The wiring for electric lights should be calculated 
so as to provide for additional service when needed. 
Switchboards should be located in the room and fitted 
with a lock and key as a protection to the machinery. 
Whenever possible all wiring should be in conduit. Main 
conduit leads should be made oversize so as to permit 
drawing an extra pair of service wires if needed for 
future equipment. 

All machines should be supplied with floor or wall 
outlets for drop-lights and fitted with safety ap- 
pliances to meet the requirements of the state factory 
laws. 

In the same way that modern architecture provides 
for the location of furniture in modern homes, the con- 
struction of a new building for teaching trades should 
provide for the installation of the equipment. Wood- 
working machinery should be arranged for efficient serv- 
ice in routing the material through the machines. All 
machines making smoke, sawdust, or shavings should 
be connected to an exhaust system. 

Division of the Interior. Temporary or Movable 
Partitions. — Trade and industrial education is com- 
paratively new in this country. It is growing very 
rapidly through a series of developmental stages, and no 
one is able to forecast accurately what the needs of any 
one institution will be a few years from now. Permanent 
interior bearing walls should be avoided as a means of 
providing greater flexibility in adjusting interior parti- 
tions to the needs of changing conditions in the shops 
and classrooms. 

Kinds of Rooms and Relative Floor Space. — What- 
ever type of building may be selected, the interior will 
be divided into rooms for shopwork, science, drafting, 
classrooms, and rooms for administrative purposes. 

The Federal and state acts require that a specified 
time shall be devoted in day schools to practical work. 
In addition, sufficient time for proper teaching must be 
given to instruction in related or technical subjects which 
are also vocational. The remaining time should be 
given to non- vocational subjects " necessary to build 
well-rounded courses of instruction." 

Experience in vocational education in trades and in- 
dustries gained by this country during the last 10 years 
has established the following as the prevailing practice : 

(a) In day industrial or trade schools, at least one-half the 
time is given to practical work on a useful or productive basis. 

(6) From 25 to 35 per cent of the time in such schools is given 
to related studies, like mathematics, drawing or science. 

(c) The remainder of the time (15 to 25 per cent) is given to 
such subjects as English, civics, hygiene, and history. 



1 64 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The following table shows the relative amount of floor 
space usually given to each kind of subjects : 

Relative Amount of Floor Space 
(Estimated for a separate Trade School, having an average enroll- 
ment of 300 pupils.) 



Floor Space 
Used in Rooms 


Average 


Average 

Percentage 

of Time 

Subject 


Minimum 
Number 
of Rooms 
Required 


Average 
Floor Area 


Average 
Per Cent 
of Total 
Floor Area 


Shopwork . . 

Related subjects 

Non-vocational 

subjects . . 


10-15 
10-20 

10-25 


50 
i6f 


5-6 
3- 4 


1500-5000 
500-1800 

400- 700 


65-85 
12-28 

3- 7 



In addition to the above space, rooms for offices, lunch, 
shower baths, recreation, and storage must be provided. 

It is clearly seen from this table that a large portion of 
the building must be devoted to shops. Since the pri- 
mary purpose of a trade or industrial school is to fit 
the individual for useful and productive employment, 
the building must be planned to give the individual 
actual shop experiences, and the equipment and methods 
used must closely follow the best practice of the industry. 
It is safer to plan large shop spaces without interior par- 
titions and then divide the space into shop, laboratory 
or classrooms as wanted, than to try to anticipate these 
needs in advance. For this reason the figures given in 
the above table can only be taken in a comparative sense. 

Replies to Questionnaire. — The same nine schools 
replying to the inquiry regarding proper site for a school 
were asked to describe the type of building which 
should be selected in a design for a new trade school. 

The replies were as follows : 

"The building should be constructed along the lines of a modern 
factory of reinforced concrete, brick facing, with large windows, 
and ample ceiling height. The governing idea should be flexibility , 
the idea being to erect sectional partitions adjacent to shops and 
conduct each trade on a unit basis. Open plumbing, sufficient 
openings for light and power, gas and water, so that shops and 
classrooms can be enlarged or changed into other lines. Cast-iron 
inserts should be placed in the concrete ceilings on 4-foot centers 
so that shafting can be conveniently erected." 

"Factory type with great flexibility. No permanent interior 
bearing walls. 'A loft subdivided to suit the tenant' is the impor- 
tant feature of the building. Design rooms for ample natural 
light in all shops and classrooms." 

"Most approved methods of shop and factory construction for 
shops. Office construction should be used for classrooms. Maxi- 
mum of utility, minimum of ornateness. Include both gymnasium 
and auditorium. Provide factory elevator to shops on upper 
floors and wide doorways." 

"The kind of trades to be taught and number of pupils to be 
accommodated. Character of academic branches to be taught." 

"A combination school and factory type. Rooms well lighted 
and ventilated. Dressing rooms and lockers on each floor. 
Simple finish and sanitary details." 



"Attractiveness as distinguished from factory appearance. 
Make layout so that offices, classrooms, and shops are arranged 
for the best routing of material and projects." 

"Factory type. Great flexibility in the interior. Unit con- 
struction. Materials and designs such as will make it possible 
to utilize the construction for 'project work.' Changeable interior 
to meet new conditions. Simplicity in construction. Factory 
facilities for routing material." 

"Concrete construction which embodies fire protection, 
economy, and simplicity. Large rooms for shops." 

"The best factory design." 

An examination of these replies shows that the con- 
sensus of opinion regarding type of building is that the 
building should have " flexibility." That is to say, it 
should be designed so as to be capable of alteration to 
meet new conditions readily. In addition, the design 
should be such as to permit of a maximum of utility 
for the purpose in view. While the several schools, 
having in mind different conditions, differed in matters 
of detail, there was no essential divergency of opinion on 
these points. 

Building and Equipment for a Trade or Industrial 
School. The General Plan. — The experienced school 
architect cannot alone solve the problem of combining 
the school and the factory. It will be necessary for 
him to obtain certain specific information by conferences 
with the school authorities. This information should 
include — ■ 

(a) The general character of the school. 

(b) The number and kind of trades to be taught. 

(c) The number of pupils the school shall be designed to ac- 
commodate. 

(d) The relative time to be given to shop, related, and non- 
vocational work. 

(e) A list of the equipment to be installed. 

(/) The amount of money available for the plant and equip- 
ment. 

(g) The facilities required for assembly rooms, gymnasiums, 
lunchrooms, and administrative quarters. 

(h) A general scheme for the floor plan, showing the arrange- 
ment and location of rooms, based upon efficient teaching and 
administration. 

In addition, there should be frequent conferences be- 
tween the architect, the principal, and the shop teacher, 
so as to assure a plan based upon the combined experience 
of the builder, the school administrator, and the journey 
man teacher. 

As a final check upon the flexibility of the building for 
trade-school purposes and upon its design on the " trade 
unit " basis, the plans of the architect should be care- 
fully checked by a comparison with other schools of a 
similar character, and with the best industrial plants. 
This comparison should be made jointly by the school 
authorities and the architect, and may be made from 
plans obtained from other schools or by personal visits 
and conferences with school officials in other cities. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



165 



Experience in the administration of trade and indus- 
trial schools is favorable to the " trade unit " plan. The 
design of the unit plan provides that all the school work 
shall be carried out and organized with a particular 
trade or industry in mind. Each trade should be 
allotted a given portion of the building, and all instruc- 
tion connected with that trade should be carried on 
within the department. This includes the shopwork 
and related science, mathematics, and drawing. As 
a means of securing greater " flexibility," the room in 
which the related instruction is given should be near 
the shops. This arrangement will enable the instructors 



should be designed with a large safety factor for in- 
stalling additional equipment. Electric light and power 
service should be run in conduit with numerous switch 
boxes having extra capacity and extra light and power 
outlets. 

Tool and stock rooms may serve two or more shops. 
Rooms for applied science, drawing, and mathematics 
will be more efficient if located near the shop. Ample 
provision should be made to deliver supplies and to 
remove from the shops the finished product. 

Windows should extend nearly to the ceiling, and 
should be set with as little space taken up by mullions 



DO 


DO 



CO r>- 




r ,, ^= 



oa - oa v— . d a 
« • Jj 

i Q ^j D Li 




Fig. 131. — Typical Shop Equipped for a Unit Trade Course in Forge and Machine Shop. 



to connect the. practical shopwork with the related 
instruction, and will make available much of the shop 
equipment for laboratory purposes. 

Experience also demonstrates that from 10 to 15 
pupils constitute an average class in shopwork, and from 
10 to 20 in related subjects ; also that the school should 
be constructed so that the pupils will be placed in situa- 
tions which closely resemble the conditions of the trade 
or industry. To do this, the factory type of school build- 
ing constructed on a " unit basis " has proven to be the 
most satisfactory. 

A much larger floor space will be required, and 
more light and ventilation will be necessary than is 
common to school buildings. Factory windows and 
northern saw-toothed skylights should be constructed 
whenever possible. Interior partitions should be of 
light construction so as to be easily moved for the 
convenience of shops and classrooms. The floors 



as possible. The area of the glass surface should in 
general equal one-fourth of the floor space. 

Since the interior of a vocational school resembles 
the factory, the construction will be less expensive 
per cubic foot than the general school. 

A Typical Shop. — A concrete example of the fore- 
going statements may be had from the following descrip- 
tion of a typical shop : 

(a) Size : The floor space should be from 1,500 to 5,000 square 
feet. 

(b) Light : On two sides, and supplemented by skylights 
whenever possible. The window-glass area should not be less 
than one-fourth the area of the floor space. 

(c) Floors : Should be wood or wood paving blocks in all 
shops where edged tools are a part of the equipment. 

(d) Walls : Brick unplastered for exterior walls. Tile or light 
frame for interior partitions. 

(e) Ceilings: Vary from 12 to 32 feet. High ceilings for 
carpentry, electrical work, and plumbing. 



i66 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



(/) Heating and ventilation : About 5 to 10 degrees less than 
for usual classrooms. Ventilation not less than 40 cubic feet of 
air per pupil per minute. 

(g) Stock, tool, and supply rooms : Adequate to contain full 
length supplies. These rooms may be combined for two or more 
shops. Drying rooms for lumber and glue work are necessary 
for woodworking shops. 

(h) Related subjects room : Located close to shop for greater 
correlation of subject matter and convenience of teacher. 

(i) Electric light and power : Extra light in shops, with extra 
light and power outlets for equipment. 

(J) Plumbing : Toilet and washroom facilities should be ac- 
cessible to all shops. One water-closet to each 15 pupils; one 
urinal for each 15 boys. Four lavatories, and one drinking-foun- 
tain for each shop. 

(k) Cases for storage : Provide adequate cases for storing tools 
and supplies. 

(/) Blackboard : Each shop should have not less than 80 
square feet of blackboard. 

(m) Benches and fittings: Full size and fitted with vises, etc., 
as in a commercial shop. 



General Specifications 













1 Electric 






Floor 




Minimum 




Light Out- 


Average 


Room 




Ceiling 




Kind of 




Tempera- 


(Square 


Hi H'.lll 


Surface 






Weather 




Feet) 


in Feet 


I0 Are°a 0R 




(Floor 












Wattage) 
















Degrees 


Machine shop . 


1,800-5,000 






Wood 




60-65 


Carpentry . . 


1,800-5,000 


18-32 




Wood 






Masonry . . . 


1,800-4,000 










6o-6 S 


Sheet metal , . 


1,800-4,000 


13 


1:4 


Wood or 


100 


60-65 


Plumbing . . 


1,500-4,000 






Cement 




60-65 


Shop electricity 


1,500-4,000 


18-32 




Wood 






Automechanics . 


1,500-4,000 


13 










House painting . 


1,500-4,000 


13 


1:4 


Wood or 


125 


65-70 


Related science 


500-1,800 


13 


1:4 


Wood 






Mathematics 


400- 700 


13 




Wood 


80 




Related drawing 








Wood 






Non-vocational 














subjects . . 


400- 7 oo 


13 


1:5 


Wood 


80 


70 



)t intended to include all the shops which may bi 



h- 





.. — Typical Shop Equipped for Unit Trade Course i 



:ng and Machine Shop. 



(n) General tools and machinery : Should be commercial tools 
of average capacity and represent the industry of the com- 
munity. 

(0) Individual tools : Usually one set for each pupil in the 
class. Edge tools should be individual. Special hand tools in 
lots of one or more and kept in tool room. 

(p) Red Cross cabinet : Containing sterile dressings for cuts 
and wounds, and other simple first-aid apparatus. 



1 Machine Shop. — A typical machine shop should 
be equipped' with up-to-date machines, such as will 
enable the school to turn out productive work in com- 
mercial quantities. The installation of equipment 
should be arranged for routing the work from one 
machine to another with the greatest efficiency. Tool 
and stock rooms, locker and wash rooms, should 



1 A number of typical shop floor plans have been prepared and submitted to teachers and Federal agents, each of whom is a specialist in one or more 
shop subjects. A room containing approximately 4400 square feet was selected as a typical floor space. The installation of equipment has been 
indicated in each plan, and partitions in most instances have been placed which divide the main shop into auxiliary shops or classrooms. These 
partitions should be of light construction, of a temporary nature, so that their location may be adjusted without great expense. In all cases the 
equipment was placed so as to provide for the routing of material and to conserve open floor spaces for use in productive work. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



167 



be provided to accommodate the needs of the 
shop. 

The machine shop should be located on the ground 
floor, and near other shops which do work related to 
machine-shop practice. When the plan of the building 
will permit, saw-tooth skylights should be used, as well 
as factory windows. 

The following is a brief list of the general tools which 
the equipment should include for a class of 10 to 15 
pupils : 



allied trades. Whenever the woodworking industries 
of the community are large enough, unit trades in 
carpentry, cabinetmaking, mill work, etc., should be 
established. 

Woodworking shops need a large amount of floor 
space. They should contain woodworking machinery, 
carpenters' benches, and from 1000 to 2000 square 
feet of floor space available for the assembly and con- 
struction of productive projects. The installation of 
the woodworking machinery should be planned when the 








1" 




Bmc „ 










1 







■ Bench 
\\ J 1 




Fig. 132. — Typical Shop Equipped for Unit Trade Course in Carpentky and Cabinetmaking. 



6 8-foot benches with 31-inch machinist vises, tops built up of 
3-inch stock on edge. 

6 metal-working lathes of different capacities and makes, 
including at least one turret and one taper turning attach- 
ment. One quick-change gear lathe should be included. 
High-speed and carbon-steel tools should be provided. 
Many of these can be made in the shop. 

1 planer with a capacity of not less than 8 feet. 

1 shaper not less than 16 inches. 

1 universal milling machine. 

1 back-geared drill press — capacity not less than 24 inches. 

1 two-wheel grinder. 

1 forge and anvil, 

1 annealing furnace, 

1 bench punch and shear. 

Sets of taps and dies, and hand tools, adequate to accommodate 
a class of 10 to' 15 pupils. 

Adequate supplies of steel, iron, and brass castings, for use in 
work on productive projects. 

Value of equipment, $5,000 to $15,000. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $10 to $15. 

Carpentry and Cabinetmaking. — The following is a 
description of a typical shop for carpentry and its 



Unless otherwise provided. 



room is designed, so that provision may be made for 
shafting and for arranging the machines for routing 
material economically from one machine to another. 
All machines should be connected to an exhaust system 
to remove the shavings and sawdust. The exhaust 
system may be motor-driven, and arrangements made 
for an automatic control which starts the exhaust 
motor whenever any woodworking machine is being 
operated. 

Tool rooms, lumber rooms, locker, and wash rooms 
should be provided in the plans. 

As most lumber is received without being thoroughly 
kiln dried, it is desirable to have a drying room fitted 
with steam coils properly ventilated, in which to store 
lumber to be used in project work. 

Woodworking shops also need a gluing room, in 
which facilities are provided for heating stock and warm- 
ing glue. 

The selection of equipment should include only tools 
that are recognized by the trade as standard. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



\ Or one Universal woodworker if 
| floor space is small. 



For 10 to 15 pupils, the equipment should include: 

1 12-inch saw table, 
1 jointer, 

1 hollow chisel mortiser, 
1 24-inch planer, j 

1 power sander. 
1 glue pot. 

10 to 15 sets of hand tools. 

Supplies of dimension and finish lumber for productive shop- 
work. 

Value of equipment, $1,000 to $3,000. 
Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $10 to $15. 

Electrical. — The work of a general electrical shop 
includes shopwork in house wiring, armature and field 
winding, power-plant operation, telegraph and telephone, 



Equipment for electric wiring for 10 to 15 pupils: 

1 skeleton house constructed of full-sized material. 

10 to 15 sets of hand tools (hammers, pliers, screwdrivers, etc.). 

2 sets of brace and bits with angle and bit extensions. 
1 standard high-reading ammeter. 

1 standard low-reading ammeter. 
1 standard high-reading voltmeter. 

1 standard low-reading voltmeter. 

2 motor-generator sets. 
2 testing magnetos. 

2 sets of stocks and dies. 

2 soldering irons and torches. 

2 sets of pipe cutters. 

3 annunciators. 

1 1 2 -inch or 14-inch engine lathe with screw-cutting attach- 
ment. 




Unit Trade Course in Electrical Trades. 



and general repair work. In some schools it will be 
possible to have separate rooms equipped for each of 
these occupations. Each shop should be equipped with 
the usual tool and locker rooms, and in addition they 
should be supplied with adequate electrical power 
facilities for experimental and practice work. 

Rooms in which instruction in house wiring is given 
will need a large amount of floor space on which to erect 
panel partitions, and even full-sized buildings for practice 
wiring. 

In the construction of the building a large number of 
outlets should be left in the walls and floors for future 
electrical connections. These should be connected to a 
switchboard by means of oversize conduit, so as to 
enable future changes in the capacity or number of con- 
ductors. 



A stock of motor and generator parts, armatures, transformers, 
and magnets for wiring practice. 

1 gas furnace and soldering irons. 

Benches with machinists' vises for pupils' use in practice 
work. 

Supplies of bell wire, new code rubber-covered wire, bells, 
push buttons, conduit, metal molding, flexible conduit, duplex 
wire, and lamp cord, etc. 

Fittings for pipe and metal molding, outlet boxes, pull boxes, 
switchboard fittings, solder, and flux, etc. 

Value of equipment, $1,000 to $3,000. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $10 to $15. 

Printing. — Rooms to be utilized for instruction in 
printing should be lighted on two sides and with northern 
light if possible. The light should be diffused over the 
entire room, and the glass area larger than that furnished 
to the usual room. In wiring the building for electric 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



lights ceiling outlets should be left for drop cords to 
type cases. 

As machines in the printing shop are motor driven, 
it is desirable to locate the presses so that wiring may 
be run to machines through concealed conduit. The 
advice of a skilled pressman should be obtained in 
locating the machines. If the equipment is to include 
linotype and monotype machines, provision should 
be made for the installation of these machines in rooms 
apart from the room to be used for the general course 
in printing. 



wood finishing to have a room for varnishing that may 
be made dust proof, and which is supplied with good 
light, heat, and ventilation. 

In the general shop cross sections of house partitions 
containing walls, ceiling, door and window openings 
should be constructed, on which to give demonstrations 
and practice work. As productive projects brought 
into this shop to be finished will necessarily occupy 
a considerable amount of floor space, a large floor area 
will be required, as well as additional room in which 
to store the finished articles. 




Fig. 134. — Typical Shop Equipped for Unit Trade Couj 



Printing equipment for 8 to 1 2 pupils : 
6 double cabinets or racks containing cases for job and news 
type, leads, slugs, rules, and spacing. 
1 imposing stone, 32 by 60 inches. 

1 paper cutter, 30 inches. 

2 job presses, not less than 10 by 15 inches. 
1 cylinder press, pony size. 

1 proof press. 

1 punch machine. 

1 stitcher. 

Adequate supplies, such as type, leads, slugs, rules, spaces, 
sticks, galleys, chases, leaders, quads, quoins, furniture, and stock 
of paper for productive job work. 

Value of equipment (not including cylinder press), $1,000 to 
$10,000. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $5 to $10. 

House Painting and Decorating. — A room fitted up 
for instruction in house painting and wood finishing 
should be well ventilated, well lighted, and furnished 
with a stock room that is fireproof. It is necessary in 



For a class of 10 to 15 pupils, the school should pro- 
vide: 

10 to 15 sets of good brushes; to include one each of: 2-inch 
varnish, 3-inch varnish, 3-inch shellac, 2-inch stain, 3-inch stain, 
2-inch paint, 3-inch paint, 4-inch paint, 4-inch flat duster, and 
3 assorted sizes of sign-writers' pencils. 

10 to 15 easels for color and drawing work. 

3 each of 6-foot and 8-foot step-ladders. 

2 each 16-foot and 18-foot extension ladders. 

2 pairs ladder jacks. 

6 pairs tilly trusses 9 feet. 

1 lot of plank for scaffolding. 
15 putty knives. 

Cases with metal drawers should be provided as follows : 
1 2 to hold s pounds each of dry or pigment color ; 3 to hold 20 
pounds each of same. 

3 60-gallon metal tanks for oil, benzine, and turpentine. 

2 drop cloths 24 by 36 feet. 

3 drop cloths 4 feet 6 inches by 32 feet. 

Adequate supplies of drawing paper, cardboard, paintbrushes, 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




""."■ n r, i j i s s ,'♦ 

Fig. 135. — Painting and Decorating Workshop. 



charcoal, rest sticks, colors dry and in oil, oils, stains, varnish, 
and lead for practical work. 

Value of equipment, $400 to $1500. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $5 to $10. 

Sheet Metal. — ■ A room fitted up for a sheet-metal shop 
needs ample floor space. Projects made of sheet metal 
often require a large area in which to assemble the parts. 
As pattern drafting is an essential part of the work 
in the sheet-metal shop, large tables on which to de- 
velop and lay out patterns should be provided as a 



part of the equipment. Good light will also be necessary 
for this work. 

For a class of 10 to 15 pupils, the equipment should 
include : 

5 double drafting tables, tops 42 by 54 inches. 

3 work tables, tops 48 by 96 inches. 

1 beading machine. 

1 burring machine. 

1 bench plate. 

1 brake, 3 feet. 



h- 



ls 



D 







Q 









Fig. 136. — Typical Shop Equipment for a Unit Trade Course in Sheet Metal. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



171 



1 brake, 8 feet. 
1 crimping machine. 
1 beak horn. 
1 blow horn. 

1 folder machine. 

2 gas furnaces. 

1 forming machine. 

1 each hollow, round, straight mandrel. 

1 square shears, 36 inches. 

1 circle shears, 32 inches. 

1 double seamer. 

1 turning machine. 

1 wiring machine. 

1 bench punch and shear. 

10 to 15 sets hand tools, and miscellaneous small tools. 

Value of equipment, $750 to $2000. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $5 to $15. 



1 skeleton of a building for practice work. 

5 plumbers' kits. 

6 each of 10-inch and 14-inch pipe wrenches. 
3 each 18-inch and 24-inch chain tongs. 

2 each 24-inch and 36-inch chain tongs. 

Sets of stocks and dies, cutters, and supplies for lead work. 

A supply of water, gas, and lead pipe, fittings and plumbing 
fixtures for practice work, including water-closets, urinals, lava- 
tories, sinks, bath tubs, trap vents, and drain and drainage pipes. 

Value of equipment, $1000 to $2500. 

Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $10 to $15. 



Pattern Making. — In general construction, a pattern- 
making shop is similar to a carpenter shop. Unless the 
school includes a foundry, a small furnace for melting 
white metal or brass should be available. This should 




Fig. 137. —Typical Shop Equipped for a Unit Trade Course in Plumbing. 



Plumbing. — In designing a room for plumbing, 
provision should be made for more than the average 
ceiling height. This is necessary in order to provide 
for the installation of plumbing systems in practice 
houses of at least two stories and basement. In some 
cases, schools have arranged for two floors of the building 
to be given to plumbing, and cut large openings in the 
floors through which to extend the rough work. In any 
case, it is necessary to provide 500 to 700 square feet 
of earth floor space for installing drainage systems in 
tile and cast iron pipe. 

For a class of 10 to 15 pupils, the equipment should 
include : 

3 metal-topped tables, tops £ by 42 by 96 inches. 

12 melting pots with gas burners (or plumbers' furnaces). 

2 plumbers' gasoline torches. 



be in a separate room with molding benches, sand, etc., 
for making test runs of certain patterns. A pattern 
shop usually requires large storage space for finished 
patterns. These should be in a separate room. 

A typical equipment includes : 

Benches for 10 to 15 pupils. 

1 band saw of not less than 30 inches. 

1 8-inch jointer or bench planer. 

1 saw table. 

1 pattern-maker's lathe. 

1 trimmer. 

3 wood-turning lathes. 

1 glue pot, 2 quarts capacity. 

1 set of flasks for molding. 

2 sets molder's small tools. 
2 barrels of molding sand. 
1 lot of white metal. 

1 furnace for melting white metal. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



10 to 15 sets of hand tools. 
A stock of white pine for patterns. 
Value of equipment, $800 to $2000. 
Annual cost of supplies per pupil, $5 to $10. 

Related Subjects. — As the vocational industrial shop 
differs from the usual manual training room, so the 
related science laboratory differs from the usual physics 
or chemistry laboratory. More floor space must be pro- 
vided for demonstration in applied science. The course 
of study should require the use of full size apparatus, 
such as block and tackle, jack screws, derricks, gasoline 
engines, and commercial testing machines, as well as 
tables and apparatus for making analyses of paints, 
oils, fuels, electrical tests, etc., which may be related to 
the various industrial subjects. 




Worcester Boys' Trade School, Worcester, 



The Science Laboratory should be equipped with a 
projecting lantern, and should be located on the ground 
floor or provided with a freight elevator in order that 
testing equipment may be moved in and out of the room. 
In wiring the room for light and power service, a switch- 
board should be installed with a large capacity for experi- 
mental work with both high and low voltage. 

Storage rooms and storage cases for the science equip- 
ment should be provided in the plans for the building. 
These can be constructed with temporary partitions and 
adjusted from time to time to meet the needs of the 
room. 

The Related Drawing Room need not differ greatly 
from the usual drawing room as planned for high schools. 
Dark rooms for printing and developing blue prints 
and the installation of blue-printing machines, should 
be available. It is desirable to have separate rooms for 
mechanical and architectural drawing, as the models 



and instruction material will differ in the two types of 
instruction. 

In addition to the usual drawing tables, storage 
facilities for blue prints should be liberally provided. In 
the factory type of construction, it will be possible to 
adjust the relative amount of floor space between shops, 
lecture rooms, and rooms for related subjects, as the 
school develops. 

The Lecture or Classroom in vocational schools 
may be the usual classrooms fitted with either chairs 
or school desks, and located away from the noise of the 
shops. 

The General School. — Whenever plans are being 
made for giving vocational training as a department 
or class in a general school, the architect should incor- 
porate in his plan the same provisions for 
~~~~~~ shops as have been outlined for a factory 
J-^, building. 

Old Buildings, Factories, or Industrial 
^^S" Plants as Temporary Quarters. — Old build- 
----- ings or industrial plants which may be 
m used for vocational schools should at the 
]m best be regarded as temporary quarters, in 
■ which to develop vocational education in 
the community. Few buildings have been 
constructed in the past which may be 
adapted to the needs of the productive shop. 
It is often desirable for the community 
to begin vocational schools in these build- 
ings, in order that a new building may be 
more efficiently planned. As a rule, school 
authorities should not regard old buildings 
which have been abandoned or disused as 
fit quarters in which to establish voca- 
tional schools. Where such schools are 
established, it will often be necessary to enlarge rooms 
by combining two or three and removing the partitions. 
Quarters obtained in industrial plants should also be 
regarded as temporary, unless the plant furnishes oppor- 
tunities for obtaining practical experience in the indus- 
trial subject for which the school is organized. 

The Part-time School. — The conditions under which 
part-time pupils are instructed do not usually require 
special buildings, although, where this work is extensive, 
as in Milwaukee, a special building will in time result. 
The all-day trade school usually has all the facilities 
for this instruction. It is impossible at this time to 
define in detail all of the varieties of part-time classes 
which may be organized under the provisions of the 
Federal act. 

The Evening Industrial School. — Evening instruction 
can be given only in such subjects as will increase skill 
or knowledge in the occupation in which the worker is 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



i73 



engaged as his daily employment, or as will lead to pro- 
motion or advancement in that work. The time avail- 
able in an evening school is so short that it is impossible 
to teach a skilled trade to any one unless he is engaged in 
daily work affording him opportunity to apply the skill 
or knowledge gained in the evening school, or unless 
the daily employment gives an experience which will 
enable the worker, with the knowledge or skill acquired 
in an evening school, to 
secure promotion in that 
occupation. The work 
can be most effectively 
given when workers in 
similar or allied occupa- 
tions are grouped to- 
gether. 

The all-day school is 
suitable for evening in- 
struction if sufficient light 
is provided. Since much 
of the instruction in the 
shops is trade extension, 
the equipment must in- 
clude commercial tools 
and machines. 

A Few Type Buildings. 
— At different points 
throughout this chapter 
will be found illustrations 
showing the floor plans 
and elevations of a few 
of the buildings used in 
the United States for in- 
dustrial and trade educa- 
tion. It was deemed 
advisable to present il- 
lustrations of the three 
different types of building 
discussed in the foregoing 
pages, the new building 
built for the purpose, the 
shop or factory adapted 
for the purpose, and the 
old school building remodeled. 




Fig. i 



First-floor plan. 
-Worcester, Mass., Boys 



In order that these illustrations may be of larger 
interest and helpfulness to those studying the problems 
of industrial school construction and equipment, this 
section of the chapter gives a brief resume of the main 
facts about each school presented. 

The Worcester Boys' Trade School, Worcester, Mass. 
History and Location. — The Worcester Boys' Trade 
School was established in February, 1910, with an enroll- 
ment of 52 boys. It is 
located one block from 
the Worcester City Hall 
on a tract containing 
45,000 square feet. Ade- 
quate car service makes 
the institution accessible 
from all parts of the city 
and vicinity. Natural 
light and ventilation are 
not obscured or interfered 
with by adjacent build- 
ings. The school is sup- 
ported by public funds. 

Buildings. — Buildings 
especially designed for 
the purpose were erected 
to house the school. The 
left wing of the main 
structure, a recitation 
building of three floors 
and a basement, and a 
shop of three floors, was 
built in iqio. In 1913 
the main building was 
constructed. The build- 
ings are of brick, per- 
manent brick and tile 
partitions, hardwood 
floors, and electric lighted. 
The main building con- 
tains the gymnasium, 
electrical and steam prac- 
tice departments, two 
recitation rooms, ad- 



Trade School. 



As there are pronounced 
variations in each type, a number of illustrations are 
given. 

No attempt has been made to include all or any con- 
siderable number of the many excellent buildings which 
are to an increasing degree being used for industrial 
and trade education. A few have been selected for 
presentation solely from the point of view of their useful- 
ness to illustrate the different types and variations of 
types of buildings used in the country. 



ministrative offices, library, drafting room, carpentry 
department, and paint shop. On the third floor is the 
printing department and assembly hall. Plans for future 
enlargement of the institution contemplate the erection 
of buildings as large again, equipped with all necessary 
machinery. The present value of the structures now in 
use, including heat and lighting plant, is given at 
$146,657.62. Natural light and ventilation of buildings 
are ample. 

Classrooms for related subjects join the shops. Other 



174 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



classrooms are apart from the shops, but all are in the 
same building. The estimate of floor space varies per 
pupil for the different departments, being: Machine 
shop, ioo feet; electrical, no feet; steam power plant, 
175 feet; drafting room, 50 feet; printing, 152 feet; 




1{|S]^L 


i 
; + 


iLflftr 


\Wk 1 



Fig. 140. — David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades. 

pattern making, 149 feet ; cabinetmaking, 96 feet ; 
carpentry, 130 feet; painting, 214 feet. 

Equipment and Courses. — Equipment is valued at 
$61,099.28, apportioned as follows: Machine shop, 
$32,270.31 ; carpenter shop, $2440.53 ; cabinet shop, 
$3830.51 ; pattern shop, $7414.01 ; paint shop, 



$237.74; electrical department, $6284.27; drafting 
department, $2071.77; printing department, $6550.14. 

The shop student capacity is : Machinist, 65 ; electri- 
cal, 20 ; steam power plant, 20 ; drafting, 44 ; printing, 
15; pattern making, 24; cabinetmaking, 50; painting, 
10; carpentry, 16. The school is able to take care of 
twice as many boys as the capacity of the shops indicates, 
because the classes are so arranged that it takes two 
weeks to complete the cycle of instruction. One-half the 
pupils are in the shop and one-half in school each week. 

Miscellaneous Data. — There is a minimum age for en- 
trance of 14 years. All courses require four years for 
completion, and there are 42 weeks in the school year. 
No part-time instruction is given. There is an evening 
school which requires 52 sessions for all except the gas- 
engine course, there being 35 sessions required for that. 
No extension work is conducted. 

The David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades, 
St. Louis, Mo. History and Location. — This insti- 
tution was endowed in 1907 with an initial gift of 
$1 ,500,000 by the philanthropist whose name it bears. A 
subsequent donation brought the total up to $3,000,000. 

The terms and conditions of the endowment as pre- 
scribed by the donor are that it " is to be used for train- 
ing and fitting boys and men for the mechanical and 
manual trades and occupations . . . who shall be 
skilled in their respective trades and occupations and 
have such education as will best fit them to serve the 
community and the state in such occupations." . The 
founder believed there was need of an institution to 
provide education in ordinary mechanical trades and 
to appreciate the dignity of labor. His idea was that 
public schools and other educational institutions had 
" not only failed to provide training in mechanical 
trades, but had tended to draw boys away from the 
consideration of them by the creation of a prejudice 
against manual labor. Boys who could have suc- 
ceeded as mechanics were, in consequence, caused to 
engage in pursuits either already overcrowded or for 
which they had no aptitude." Mr. Ranken stipulated 
that the trades taught in the school created and main- 
tained by his money should be those in which there is a 
demand for practical workmen in the community and 
the state. 

The site was donated by the founder. It is 300 by 600 
feet, or approximately 3 acres, located in a residential 
part of the city of St. Louis which is rapidly becoming 
industrial in character. It is not, and, by reason of 
streets on all sides, cannot be overshadowed or crowded 
by adjacent buildings. There is thus an assured maxi- 
mum of natural light and ventilation. 

It is accessible by a good car service reaching all parts 
of the community. The plant at present covers about 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



i75 



30 per cent of the ground. The remainder is available, 
and ample for recreation purposes and future additions 
to the buildings. 

Buildings. — In 1909 the first of the buildings was 
completed. It is a three-story brick, especially designed 
for the purpose. Careful attention was paid in the 
plans to lighting, heating, and ventilation. Electric 
lighting is used throughout. It has brick partitions, 
and the flooring is carbolithic laid on cement, except 
in the shops, where wood block is used. The building 
was erected during a period when material was cheap 
and wages lower than in recent years, and its total cost 
was $170,000, and initial equipment valued at $9000. 

This building faces Cook Avenue, and contains six 
shops, a drafting room, science room, library, classroom, 
and administrative offices. 

The second building was completed in 191 2, and was 
also especially designed for its purposes. It is of brick, 
with hollow tile partitions, carbolithic floors laid on 
cement, except in shops, these being of wood block. This 
structure is modern in all respects and well suited for 
its functions. The completion of this building brought 
the total value of buildings of the David Ranken, Jr., 
School up to approximately $500,000, as estimated in 
1918. 

Equipment and Courses. — The equipment for teach- 
ing trades was inventoried in April, 1918, as: Brick- 
laying, $1200; painting, $1000; electrical, $9000; pre- 
paratory, $1600 ; machine shop, $30,000 ; plumbing, 
$3000 ; pattern shop, $4000 ; carpentry shop, $7500 ; 
science, $3500 ; total, $60,800. The steam engineering 
class uses boiler and engine room equipment not included 
in the above figures. 

There are three schools — day, evening, and day 
cooperative. The institution " aims to give the boy 
without experience training similar to that received 
by the apprentice ; to the apprentice such instruction 
as will round out his shopwork; and to give to the 
journeyman information concerning his trade that 
is not given in his shop. It also aims to obtain the 
cooperation of manufacturers who acknowledge the 
limitations of shop instruction, and who will send their 
apprentices to the school to study the theory of their 
trade." The institution is therefore intensely practical. 
The trades instruction is almost entirely individual, and 
pupils, except in stationary engineering, may enter 
at any time. The great majority of the pupils in the 
evening school are actively engaged in the trade, the 
theory or practice of which is taught in the school. 

Requirements for Admission. — For admission, boys 
must be white, 15 years and over, who have completed 
the sixth grade of the public schools or its equivalent. 
In the"*day school, exception is made in favor of boys 



14 years of age who have completed the work of the 
sixth grade or equivalent, are physically qualified for 
the work, and exhibit particular aptitudes for trade 
instruction. All applicants must be in good physical 
condition. Any candidate with trade experience, but 
who lacks the educational qualifications, may make up 
the latter in special classes formed by the school for 
preparatory instruction. 

Cooperation of Employers. — The cooperative classes 
were organized at the suggestion of the St. Louis branch 
of the National Metal Trades Association for the in- 
struction of apprentices in the machinists' and pattern- 
making trades. The association, through its shop su- 
perintendents, provides complete instruction in the use 
of tools and machines, leaving the theoretical instruc- 
tion to the school. The institution holds out a standing 
invitation to employers of apprentices to avail them- 
selves of the work offered in the cooperative classes. 
A minimum of 16 years of age is required for admis- 
sion. Employers pay $15 per year tuition for each 
apprentice, and at the same time pay the regular wages 
for time spent in attendance at the school. 

Associations of manufacturers, contractors, workmen, 
and men and boys who are employed by the day but 
attend evening classes, have all shown considerable 
appreciation of the school. Employers whose appren- 
tices are in the cooperative classes have expressed them- 
selves as pleased with results, and the general attitude 
of the public toward the institution is that of cordial 
good will and respect for its work. 

Miscellaneous Data. — A nominal tuition is charged 
in order to cause pupils to take the work seriously and 
appreciate the opportunity, as well as for the purpose 
of eliminating the undesirables with no definite purpose, 
who drift in and out of absolutely free schools without 
completing any course. Pupils are required to provide 
their own drawing instruments, paper, and incidental 
material. Tools and supplies in the shops are furnished 
by the school. 

There were in March, 191 8, a total of 302 graduates 
of the day-school regular trade courses, and 90 gradu- 
ates of the part-time courses. The total enrollment for 
the day school was 1402; part-time students, 312; 
evening students, 4000. 

The school year for day pupils covers a period of 46 
weeks, divided into three terms. The evening-school 
year covers two terms of three weeks each, beginning 
in October and in January. 

The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, 
Williamson School, Pa. History and Location. — 
December 1, 1885, Isaiah U. Williamson founded the 
school which bears his name. On October 21, 1891, 
the institution, with an endowment of about $2,000,000, 



176 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




es, Williamson, Pennsylvania. 



became a reality and opened its doors for its first session. 
The endowment is its sole support. No fees of any sort 
are charged. 

The declared purpose of the founder was to give to 
poor and deserving boys a good English education; 
to train them in habits of morality, economy, and in- 
dustry ; and to teach them trades. The school is 
distinctly vocational, and only for pupils who intend to 
follow for a livelihood the trades taught them there. 
No others will be admitted. 

The institution is located at Williamson 
School Station on the central division of 
the Pennsylvania Railroad, about 16 miles 
from the Broad Street Station in Phila- 
delphia. The Media Short Line electric 
cars from the Sixty-ninth Street Terminal, 
Philadelphia, also reach the property. The 
school owns a tract of 230 acres of land, 
that part not in use for campus and build- 
ings being devoted to agriculture and the 
teaching of agriculture. The site is a 
beautiful one and well suited to its purpose. 

Buildings. — A few of the buildings were 
acquired with the land. The rest have 
been constructed especially for the pur- 
poses for which they are being used, and 
most of them were erected by student 
labor, giving practical instruction to the 
students of the various trades involved. 
The buildings are of brick, concrete, and 
wood ; floorings are of wood and concrete, 



and in the shops the partitions are of 
yellow pine placed as needs arise. Owing 
to the amount of land possessed by the 
school, the campus has been so arranged 
that each building has a maximum of light, 
air, and distance from other buildings. In 
the main the buildings have been carefully 
designed for their purpose, and have met 
the requirements satisfactorily. Some of 
the buildings erected by the students are 
somewhat pretentious, of pleasing architec- 
ture, and well built. Electricity is used 
for lighting, and there is a central power 
and steam-heating plant. 

Equipment and Courses. — In the shops 
approximately 163 square feet of floor 
space, including locker and wash room, is 
figured per pupil. For academic work ap- 
proximately 18 square feet of floor space per 
pupil is figured. In the drawing room 45 
square feet per pupil is allotted — this, how- 
ever, including supply room and blue-print 
room. Classrooms are in the shops for shop subjects, and 
apart from the shops for cultural and related subjects. 

The trades taught are : Agriculture, including a prac- 
tical and scientific course in dairying, horticulture, 
and general farming; carpentry, bricklaying, includ- 
ing range, furnace, and boiler setting, etc. ; the ma- 
chine trade in its usual details ; operating engineering, 
including care of steam and electrical appliances, steam 
fitting, etc. ; and pattern making. The shops are well 
equipped for trade teaching. 




42. — Agricultural Building, Free School op Me 
Williamson, Pennsylvania. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



177 



The value of this equipment is given as : Machinist's 
trade, $26,000 ; carpentry, $8320; pattern-making trade, 
$12,870; bricklaying, $3100; operating engineering, 
$27,690; scientific agriculture, $27,300; total, $116,280. 
Operating engineering students receive their practical 
training in the steam and electrical plant of the insti- 
tution, which provides all heat, light, and power needed. 
Each scholar takes but one of the trades mentioned. 

Requirements for Admission. — Graduates of the 
Williamson School have a reputation for thoroughness, 
and as high as 98 per cent of the members of a gradu- 
ating class have immediately started as journeymen at 
the trades taught them. Admissions are 
made in April of each year, and first pref- 
erence is given to boys from Philadelphia, 
or Bucks, Montgomery, and Delaware 
Counties, Pa. ; second to those from else- 
where in the state; third to those from 
New Jersey ; and finally to applicants born 
elsewhere in the United States. None but 
natives of the United States are eligible 
for admission. Candidates must be not 
less than 16 nor more than 18 years of 
age, healthy, able-bodied, possessed of 
natural aptitude and liking for mechani- 
cal or agricultural work. They must have 
sufficient education to enter readily upon 
the school work. 

Applications for admission considerably 
exceed capacity and there is a waiting list, 
for which boys of not less than 15 years of 
age and upward and who will not be more 
than 18 at the next admission period may 
qualify. 

Students Are Indentured. — A prelimi- 
nary trial is given applicants, and those 
who are found satisfactory are bound to the 
trustees as indentured apprentices for a 
term of three years. This indenture may be 
canceled by the trustees at any time for incompetency, 
bad conduct, or reasons compelling the conclusion that 
a boy is undesirable for future support and education. 
The scholars, by the indenture, are obligated to con- 
form to all regulations and restrictions of the board of 
trustees or their representatives ; and all right of claim 
to control them during the period they remain at the 
school is lodged with the trustees. 

Miscellaneous Data. — The school can accommodate 
about 250 students. Their life is made to conform as 
far as possible to good family standards in so far as 
living quarters are concerned. The boys are divided 
into families of 24, each having its matron and its own 
distinct home or cottage, cared for by its occupants. 



These homes contain no kitchens, dining rooms, or 
laundries. These, as well as the dining hall, are located 
in other buildings. Special attention is paid to the moral 
training of the students. The school is nonsectarian, 
but each student is required on entrance to designate 
his denominational preference and thereafter to attend 
service regularly at its nearest place of worship. A 
four weeks' vacation in summer and short vacations at 
Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas 
are given to students deserving them. 

The Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas 
City, Mo. History and Location. — The Lathrop School 




Fig. 143. — Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas City, Missouri 



of Mechanical Trades — a part of the public-school 
system of Kansas City, Mo. — was organized in 191 1 as 
a boys' industrial school, and continued as such until 
1916, when it was reorganized into a trade school. It 
was housed first in an old brick school building erected 
in 1900. The site is well located, is accessible by car 
lines from all parts of the city, has ample natural light 
and ventilation, and is not overshadowed or crowded 
by adjacent buildings. The ground is 277 by 168 
feet, and the buildings cover about 75 per cent of this 
area. 

Buildings. — In addition to the old main building, 
a new shop building of modern factory type is being 
constructed in units by the pupils in the Building 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Trades Classes. The first of these was completed in 
1 91 6 and the second in 191 7. Further extensions 
will be erected as needed. Both are constructed of 
brick, with permanent plastered partitions. The total 
value of buildings is inventoried at $91,000, not includ- 
ing value of the site. 

Equipment and Courses. — The equipment is valued 
at : Cabinetmaking, $3300 ; electricity, $1000 ; plumb- 
ing, $350; painting, $300; printing, $3500; carpentry, 
$200; sheet metal, $600; total, $9250. 

The minimum age requirement for entrance is 14 
years for all courses, and each trade requires 2 years of 
40 .weeks each. 




mately $3,000,000 was devised for the purpose of es- 
tablishing an industrial school which should be free, 
without restriction of race or color, to all residents of 
the state of Minnesota and the city of Minneapolis. 
Twelve trustees were designated by the will to start 
the work of carrying out the desire of the donor. They 
met and organized themselves into a corporation. The 
school opened in December, 1914, with a registration 
of 80 students in four trades. The quarters occupied 
were temporary. In 1915 Mrs. Dunwoody died, and 
by her will left an additional $2,000,000 to the school, 
thus bringing the endowment total to $5,000,000. 
The trustees bought a 15-acre tract fronting on the 










Fig. 144. — William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 



In the evening school electricity, sign writing, cabi- 
netmaking, printing, and sheet-metal working are 
taught. Two terms of 35 nights each are required per 
year. Part-time school instruction is given in print- 
ing. 

Miscellaneous Data. — The capacity of the school is 
given as follows in the various courses : Electricity, 
24; carpentry, 24; plumbing, 12; painting, 24; sheet- 
metal working, 24; total, 162. Enrollment March 1, 
1 91 8, was reported as: Plumbing, 5; sheet-metal 
working, 8 ; advanced electricity, 24 ; cabinetmaking, 
14; wood turning, 16; printing, 10; painting, 15; 
elementary electricity, 15 ; carpentry, 14; and 4 men in 
the evening printing class; total, 125 pupils. 

The William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, 
Minneapolis, Minn. History and Location. — -By the 
will of Mr. William Hood Dunwoody, a wealthy flour 
manufacturer, who died February 8, 1914, approxi- 



parade grounds, in Minneapolis, upon which to con- 
struct the buildings and plant of the new institution, 
which it was planned to make as near ideal as possible. 
The site conforms to the ideal. It is sufficiently large 
for present and future needs, located centrally, acces- 
sible to good street car service, and in a good neighbor- 
hood. It is in close proximity to a public playground, 
and there is no possibility of the maximum of natural 
light and ventilation being interfered with. 

When work began in December, 1914, there were 80 
students and four trades or occupations taught. In 
January, 1915, the number of trades was increased to 
seven and the enrollment to 175. The present enroll- 
ment is in excess of 650 and the capacity 1350, with lists 
of subjects taught as given below. 

In September, 1915, the day-school enrollment was 
increased to 250 ; and in October a night school of ap- 
proximately 1500 men was started. Dull season, part- 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



i>19 




Fig. 145. — William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 




Fig. 146. — William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 



i8o 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



time, and extension classes were started in the winter 
of 1915-1916. Recruiting men in the Enlisted Re- 
serve and war training began at Dunwoody in April, 
191 7. The school moved into its new quarters August 
1, 1917. 

During the war all the regular peace-time activities 
of the school were continued on approximately the same 
basis as before the war ; all war work was taken on in 
addition. The war work included training of enlisted 
men in the navy and army for trade, and the mechani- 
cal occupations. It also included the training of con- 
scripted men in both day and evening school work. 



by two passageways on each floor, one at the front of 
the buildings and one at approximately the center. 
Future plans for expansion call for four more shop 
^nits, an auditorium, administration building, gym- 
nasium, and power house. A set of sketches has been 
made for the complete plan of 10 buildings and athletic 
field, equipment for them to be provided in accordance 
with the industrial demands of the state. 

Equipment and Courses. — Present equipment is 
valued at : Automobile department, $10,000 ; baking 
and laboratory, $30,000 ; aeroplane department, 
$10,500 ; machine shop, $30,000 ; power laboratory, 




Fig. 147. — ■ William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 



Buildings. — ■ The new, especially designed buildings 
of the institute were completed in 191 7 and are now 
occupied and in use. There are two units of reinforced 
concrete with brick facings, each 75 feet wide by 285 
feet long, two stories high, with full basement. A 
total of 125,000 square feet of floor space is thus obtained, 
equivalent to a six-story building 75 feet wide and 285 
feet long. Partitions are of wood and glass, temporarily 
placed as necessities require ; fireproof paint is used 
and the structures are made fireproof. Creosoted 
paving blocks are used as flooring. There are 27 class- 
rooms, in which over 800 students can be given instruc- 
tion. The classrooms are used for recitation and study 
purposes. The two parallel buildings are connected 



$15,000; woodworking department, $10,000; total, 
$141,500. 

The day courses offered by the school are : Automo- 
bile work, baking, building construction, drawing and 
design, electricity, gas manufacturing, heat treatment, 
machine-shop work, plumbing, printing, radio work, 
sheet-metal trade, slide rule, steam fitting, telephony, 
welding, aviation motors, cooking, carpenters, copper- 
smiths, metal workers, blacksmiths, vulcanizing, pilots, 
quartermasters, machinists' mates, and. Liberty motor 
ignition for the aviation section of the army. 

Evening courses are offered in : Automobile repair 
and construction, building construction (including car- 
pentry, mill-room work, building foreman, cost esti- 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



mating, and concrete construction), electricity (general), 
gas manufacture, heat treatment, plumbing, printing 
(composition, press work, and linotype work), sheet 
metal, slide rule, steam fitting, and telephony. These 
courses are divided into short units of 14 to 30 lessons 
each. 

Evening courses running through the entire evening- 
school term of 50 lessons are : Baking, drawing and de- 
sign, building-construction drafting, sheet-metal draft- 
ing, interior decorating, machine drafting and design, 
machine-shop subjects, welding. 

Evening-school courses are arranged on a basis of two 
hours per night, two nights per week. Shop courses are 
arranged four hours per night, one night per week. 
The length of the evening- 
school season is 25 weeks, 
or a total of 100 hours. 
The units in practically 
all classes are arranged to 
cover a period of from 
two to three years. A 
certificate is issued upon 
the completion of any 
unit ; a diploma is issued 
upon the completion of 
all units in a course. 

Boys' Technical High 
School, Milwaukee, Wis. 
History and Location. — 
In January, 1906, some 
philanthropic citizens 
interested in vocational 
education founded the 
Milwaukee School of 
Trades. The institution, by act of the Wisconsin Legis- 
lature, was taken in and became a part of the public- 
school system of the city of Milwaukee, July 1, 1907, 
and on May 1, 191 7, the name was changed to " The 
Boys' Technical High School." 

The site is centrally located in a district partly resi- 
dential. It is 314 by 158 feet, and so situated that the 
natural light and ventilation are not obstructed, over- 
shadowed, or interfered with by adjacent buildings. 
It is near the manufacturing center of the city, and is 
accessible by eight car lines from different parts of the 
community, and the general environment is good. 

Buildings. — The buildings occupied were erected for 
the purpose of a technical high and trade school in 
1911-1912. In 1915 the administration building was 
put up, and in 1917-1918 the new west wing was con- 
structed. The buildings are of reenforced concrete, 
faced with brick, and with hollow-tile partitions ; the 
flooring, except in corridors, is of wood, and the build- 




FlG. 



ings are lighted by electricity. Calculation of floor 
space is made on a basis of equipment. Contemplated 
expansion is designed to afford quarters to house the 
printing department and equipment, as well as the 
automobile department and its equipment. A new 
" East- wing " building is also being planned. The 
value of buildings is given as $300,000. 

Equipment and Courses. — Equipment is inventoried 
as follows : Machine and tool making, $50,000 ; for 
the pattern-making trade, $8000; electricians' trade, 
$6500; telegraphy, $550; carpentry and cabinetmak- 
ing trade, $9600; plumbing and gas-fitting trade, 
$8000; mechanical-drafting trade, $1500; architec- 
tural drafting, $1500; total, $85,650. 

The minimum age re- 
quirement is 16 years. 
Tuition is free to residents 
of Milwaukee under 20 
years of age, except that 
a breakage fee of $5 is re- 
quired as a deposit. Non- 
resident students pay $4 
tuition per month, as do 
resident pupils over 20 
years of age. The " tech- 
nical-high " course re- 
quires six years, and the 
trade courses two years 
each to complete, with an 
average of eight hours per 
day for each student. No 
extension work is given. 

The courses consist of 
preparation for the follow- 
ing trades : Machines and tool making, pattern mak- 
ing, electrician, telegraphy, carpentry, cabinetmaking, 
plumbing and gas fitting, mechanical drafting, and 
architectural drafting. 

The day sessions open in September and close in 
June. Evening instruction is given three times a week 
from October 1 to May 1 in all of the above-mentioned 
subjects. When 24 regular students whose individual 
programs permit of it sign a petition requesting a sub- 
ject regularly provided in other Milwaukee high schools, 
that subject may be offered in the technical high school. 
Mechanical and free-hand drawing are taught in con- 
nection with all shop courses, and at all times each stu- 
dent's program shall include at least one shop course. 
Persons desiring to obtain a trade diploma in less than 
four years, work full 8 hours per day, 40 hours per 
week. 

Miscellaneous Data. — The enrollment of pupils in 
1918 was: Day classes, 172; night classes, 244. The 



First-floor plan. 
— Plans of Boys' Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis. 



I&2 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 149. — Vocational School, New Bedford, Mass. 

management states that by employing additional in- 
structors and using the shops to full capacity 470 
pupils could be accommodated in day work and the same 
number for the night classes. 

The school does not claim to turn out journeymen 
mechanics. Its aim is to instruct students thoroughly 
in as short a time as possible in all the fundamental 
principles and in practice of the trade in question. In 
this way the pupils upon graduation possess ability 
and confidence and are of immediate practical value to 
their employers and receive a fair wage at once. 

The New Bedford Vocational School, New 
Bedford, Mass. History and Location. — 
The New Bedford Vocational School is 
part of the Massachusetts public-school 
system. It was first opened in 1908, and 
has proved a very successful venture in 
practical education. 

The site is 166 by 170 feet, located in 
an industrial district in the center of the 
city. Natural light and ventilation are 
not obstructed by adjacent buildings. The 
site was chosen on account of its acces- 
sibility by car lines and of its situation in 
an industrial district. 

Buildings. — The type of the main build- 
ing is an old frame factory building, rented 
in 1910. Some additions have been made 
to the plant since the building was taken 
over : a two-story frame building to house 
the gas producer, a two-story addition 20 
by 24 feet for the power plant, and in 191 5 



a three-story addition for tool and locker 
rooms for machine and carpentry depart- 
ments. Floorings are of wood and con- 
crete. The building has been converted 
to the present use so that it is serviceable, 
even if lacking in many respects. It is 
lighted by electricity. Classrooms are 
apart from the shops. Floor space per 
pupil has not been calculated, owing to 
the makeshift character of buildings. 

Equipment and Courses. — The value of 
equipment of the institution is given as 
follows : Machine shop, $19,000 ; carpenter 
shop, $3000; power departments, $11,000; 
electric department, $4000; homemaking 
department, $5000 ; total, $42,000. 

Capacity of school is given as follows : 
Machinery pupils, 36 ; carpentry, 45 ; elec- 
trical, 36 ; steam engineering, 20 ; home- 
making, 45 ; a total of 182 pupils. 

Number of pupils March 1, 1918, were: 
Machinery, day class 31, night 24; carpentry, day 8, 
night 12; electrical, day 32, night 50; steam power, 
day 10, night 32; homemaking, day 32, night 502; 
total, day students 113, night 620. There are 81 pupils 
in the part-time homemaking course. 

Painting and decorating are to be added in the near 
future to the day courses. Evening classes for women 
are being conducted in seven sections of the city, and this 
extension work is scheduled for amplification. 

The steam-power course is three years, as is the 
" homemaking " course. Machinery, carpentry, and 




Fig. 150. — Vocational School, New Bedford, Mass. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



electricity require four years each. There are 40 weeks 
in the school year, and forty courses are required, for 
machinists, carpentry, steam engineering, sheet-metal 
drafting, mechanical drawing, machinery, mathematics, 
carpentry, shop drawing, sewing, cooking, and 
millinery. 

The Bayonne Vocational School, Bayonne, N. J. 
History and Location. — The Bayonne Vocational 
School was organized September, 191 1, by the board of 
education of the city of Bayonne. It is a public 
school, half the cost of support being paid by the 



60 feet, and brings the total machine-shop area to 3600 
square feet. Classrooms are apart from the shops. 
The total value of buildings is given as $23,000. 

Equipment and Courses. — The value of equipment 
totals $35,000, apportioned as follows : Machine shops, 
$28,000; woodworking, $2000; electric wiring, $2500; 
printing, $1 700 ; mechanical and academic drawing, 
$700. 

The capacity of the machine shop is for 40 students 
at one time : Woodworking, 24 ; electric wiring, 24 ; 
printing, 24 ; and mechanical drawing, 24. 




• <3 BOUND -FLOcTR-PL AN- 



Fig. 151. 



•<SEC(?ND-FL<?0R-PLAN- 

- Vocational School, Bayonne, New Jersey. 



•THIRD- FL00R-PLAN- 



municipality, the other half by the state. The loca- 
tion of the school is accessible from all parts of the 
community. 

The function of the school is to train boys to enter the 
industries of the community with some definite prepara- 
tion for earning a living. It does not aim to turn out 
journeyman mechanics, but to ascertain what trade a 
boy is best fitted to follow, and then to give him such a 
foundation as will fit him to enter that trade as a su- 
perior apprentice. 

Buildings. — The main building of the school plant 
was erected about 1875 as a Y. M. C. A. structure. 
It was remodeled for a high school about 1908, and 
again remodeled in 1911-1912 for occupancy and used as 
a vocational trade school. It is of three-story brick, 
with brick partitions. There is a frame annex of two 
stories, built for a high school, and in 191 7 a one-story 
concrete base and maple-floored extension to the me- 
chanical shop was constructed. This building is 30 by 



The daily program requires three hours of shopwork, 
two hours of academic work (arithmetic, history, Eng- 
lish, etc.), and one hour of mechanical drawing, making 
a school day of six hours. 

Employers of Bayonne make frequent calls upon the 
institution for boys to enter their industries, and the 
number of calls has been greater than the school has 
been able to supply. The school has graduated 69 
boys, over 90 per cent of whom are engaged in the trades 
for which they were trained. 

The minimum age for entrance is 14 years. A boy 
who has completed the eight grades in the elementary 
schools can graduate from the vocational school in two 
years ; otherwise three years is required. Special 
academic work is provided for pupils who are not grad- 
uates of the elementary schools. There are 40 weeks 
in the school year for the day school, and a minimum 
term of 64 nights per year in the evening school, in which 
instruction in machine-shop work, pattern making, 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




carpentry, electric wiring, and mechanical drawing 

is provided. No extension work is given. The school 

has enrolled over 900 pupils in the day courses. In 

the evening schools 

over 1000 men have 

received technical 

instruction definitely 

related to their daily 

occupations. 

Shop instruction 
is individual as far 
as possible, thus per- 
mitting each pupil to ~^^^^k 
progress as rapidly FlG IS2 ._ wentworth 

as he is capable of 

doing. Graduation is based upon proficiency in the 
shop, rather than the academic course. 

Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. General Plan. 
— The buildings of Wentworth Institute which have 
already been erected (those shown in figure 152, except- 
ing the power plant in the rear of them) form merely a 
facade group of the great system of buildings which the 
directors have in mind for the future. It is hoped to 
build back over the grounds to the rear a plant which 
shall have, at its smallest, the size and arrangement 
indicated in figure 153. 

The conditions which will control this development 
are the needs of the youth and of the industries of the 
community, with the emphasis in one decade on one 
kind of work and on another in the next, and the 
introduction of new trades or the revision of old ones by 



new progress in methods. The approach from the park- 
way opposite will be kept impressive, and the adminis- 
tration buildings will always be conveniently located 
near the center of 
the group. 

Flexibility of Plan 
for Buildings. — To 
meet these condi- 
tions of develop- 
ment the plan for 
buildings has had 
as its first require- 
ment flexibility. 
This flexibility was 
gained by adopting 
a standard building " unit " which may be repeated 
again and again in various locations upon the grounds 
without sacrificing symmetry, convenience of arrange- 
ment, or of connection between buildings. 

A great variety of types of buildings was carefully 
studied. The advantages and disadvantages of each 
were considered. Finally, there was adopted a three- 
and-one-half-story and basement building, 48 feet wide 
by 144 feet long, divided into nine equal bays of 16 feet 
each. The width of the building is equal to the length 
of three bays. The flexibility of the scheme results 



Institute, Boston, Mass. 





Fig. 154. — Standard Unit Divided tor Instruction in Shops, 
Wentworth Institute. 



Eecitation 



Fig. 155. — Plan of Standard Unit Divided for Recitation 
Rooms, Wentworth Institute. 



Fig. 153. — Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. 



56. — Plan of Standard Unit Arranged in t 
Combination, Wentworth Institute. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



not only from the previous knowledge of the size of the 
units to be erected in any relation to any buildings al- 
ready erected, so that a unit or two can be omitted and 
building proceed at a distance, if necessary, but it results 
mainly from the dimensions themselves, for the width be- 
ing one-third of the nine-bay length permits a develop- 
ment into a T-shaped building by adding a standard unit 
or a double unit as a wing in the center of the rear, or it 
permits a U-shaped building to be developed by extend- 
ing wings of single or double units at the rear of either 
end. These T and U structures may, in turn, be de- 
veloped into rectangular buildings about a single or 
double central court. These possibilities are revealed 
by figure 153. The nine bays also make it possible to 
have either one entrance in the center of the building, 



court group of buildings no connecting links are neces- 
sary. But between such groups and simple units such 
as, for example, A and B in figure 153, connection must 
be supplied. At Wentworth Institute this is secured by 
a 1 2 -foot covered passageway on the first floor and also 
in the basement, between adjoining buildings (figure 
153). The buildings are not connected on other floors. 
Thus neither lighting nor outlook has been appreciably 
impaired, nor has the architectural outline been de- 
stroyed. On the other hand, the covered passageway 
permits the centralization of washrooms, locker rooms, 
study rooms, etc. ; makes it unnecessary to face the 
weather in going from building to building ; reduces the 
distance from department to department ; and facili- 
tates administrative relationships among departments 
and between departments and the general offices. By 
the same means central control of the student body is 
assured. Students cannot enter or leave the buildings 




Fig. 157. — Floor Plan of Power Plant Laboratory, 
Wentworth Institute. 

or two entrances symmetrically located near either end, 
without having a column on the axis of the entrance. 
In the case of Wentworth Institute sufficient room has 
been provided on all sides of the group of buildings 
now erected to permit extension in any direction ; for 
example, the wing B, in figure 153, can be extended in 
length forward for 96 feet. It can then have a second 
and third wing parallel to the wing C extended at either 
end of it for a distance of 96 feet ; and these two wings 
may be connected in the rear by another building run- 
ning parallel to B, forming a complete rectangle such as 
has already been mentioned, with two courts 48 feet 
square. Should all of these additions be made to this 
section the completed structure would have a floor 
space equal to four and one-third of the standard units 
adopted. It is, of course, not necessary to complete 
the whole group, nor indeed to add the units in any very 
definite order. The great variety of ways in which the 
growth can take place shows the flexibility of the plan- 
Connecting the Units of Building. — When the 
standard units are juxtaposed in the development of a 



Main Floor Plan of Main Building, 
Wentworth Institute. 

without passing the general offices in the main build- 
ing. They are obliged to pass the bulletin boards at 
least twice daily. Habitual tardiness is easily observed 
and corrected and in many other ways more effective 
and efficient control is obtained than would be possible 
in buildings separated in the usual way. 

Special Advantages of the Standard Unit Adopted. — 
The standard unit adopted is arranged for natural 
ventilation through outside transoms, glass areas, etc. 
The buildings, therefore, are not dependent for fresh 
air upon an intricate ventilating system, which is sub- 
ject to faulty operation ; nor is there danger of having 
at some time an ill-ventilated building, because the 
system is too expensive to operate, as in the cases of 
several recent educational structures. 

The dimensions of the unit involve a building with a 
single row of columns down the center (figure 154). The 
double row is the plan upon which almost all school 
buildings are laid out. This common method permits 
a wider structure than the single row of columns used at 
Wentworth Institute. But the results are all in favor 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



of the narrower building. A single row of supports 
gives as wide a floor space as can be perfectly lighted 
from the windows ; the double row gives an area too 
wide for good lighting. The double row clutters the 
area with a forest of pillars, making general observation 
difficult over any large room and hampering the ar- 
rangement and movement of equipment. Moreover, 
the single row of supports, permitting a unit of 48 feet 
wide by 144 feet long, carries floor area which will admit 
the selection of a maximum standard size of shop or 
laboratory. This maximum standard is based upon the 
distance over which an instructor can control a group of 
students without unnecessary movement about the room 



ment was once all in the west building ; then all of it was 
moved to the main building ; later part was moved on 
to the east building, when that was completed. Every 
piece fits in its new place and no substitution purchases 
have been necessary. 

Expansion and readjustment are further simplified 
by the fact that all partitions except those covering 
stairways are removable, though soundproof, and all 
rooms may be thus decreased or increased in size to 
suit immediate uses. By this scheme fitness alone 
need be consulted in placing departments in new quarters 
in another building. If the floor best suited for a cer- 
tain department which uses a large shop formerly housed 




Fig. 159. — Ground-Floor, West Building, Wentworth Institute. Fig. 160. — First Floor, West Building, Wentworth Institute. 



for purposes of observation and discipline. This stand- 
ard shop is in the general proportion of 50 by 100 feet. 

Among the advantages which accrue from the adop- 
tion of any standard unit is that of easy and simple 
adjustment of departments when, in the process of 
growth or reorganization, they are moved from build- 
ing to building. Furniture, machines, all equipment 
which fitted in one shop will fit in another of the same 
proportions. The equipment which stood in a certain 
corner can easily be disposed in the new quarters in an 
analogous corner. The economy of time and effort 
which is made in this regard is as important as the 
economy of funds through not having to purchase sub- 
stitute equipment. This is a very considerable saving. 
Wentworth Institute has had several occasions to test 
it. The adjustment of the plant to the housing and 
instruction of the training detachment of soldiers has 
been one instance. And when each additional build- 
ing was finished the expansion involved a similar ad- 
justment. For instance, the drafting courses' equip- 



a group of recitation rooms and offices, the temporary 
partitions form no obstacle to placing that department 
on that floor. (Compare figure 154 and figure 155.) 
By virtue of this removability of partitions the arrange- 
ment not only of the departments with relation to one 
another but within the department becomes highly 
flexible and makes it possible for the institute to set a 
high standard in efficient use of floor space and in its 
plan for simple and direct travel of materials and workers. 
The Arrangement of the Standard Unit Floor. — 
The standard unit may be divided for instruction in 
shop practice (figure 154) or it maybe divided for recita- 
tion rooms, lecture rooms, etc. (figure 155). Where large 
shops or large laboratories or drawing rooms are required, 
the full width of the building is used, and the rooms 
may be 32 feet, 48 feet, 64 feet, 80 feet, 96 feet, or 112 
feet long, as desired. When recitation or lecture rooms 
are required, a corridor about 8 feet wide is run on one 
side of the center row of columns, making rooms 24 
feet wide on one side of the building, and about 15 or 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



187 



16 feet wide on the other. Recitation or lecture rooms 
are naturally made 24 by 32 feet or 24 by 48 feet. Both 
of these are very convenient sizes. The narrow space 
on the other side of the corridor, too, divides itself 
readily into offices 16 feet square, or instrument rooms, 
washrooms, etc., 16 by 32 feet, or 16 by 48 feet. It 
would be difficult to select dimensions for a standard 
building which could be divided more readily into rooms 
of convenient sizes for all sorts of purposes, or in more 
convenient combinations. 

General Review of Buildings. — The buildings of 
Wentworth Institute may be conveniently designated as 
the west building (right of photograph, figure 152), main 



The west building is chiefly a shop building, 145 
feet long by 49 feet wide, with four high-posted stories 
and a well-lighted gallery floor for workshops, labora- 
tories, and classrooms ; and a small one-story wing ex- 
tending to the south for offices, which serves also as the 
passageway to and from the main building. In this 
building are, on the top story, a large shop for electric 
wiring, a plumbing shop ; a pattern shop, with stock 
rooms, tool room, offices, etc., occupies the whole of 
the second floor ; a machine shop of equal size and some- 
what similar appointments occupies the first floor ; be- 
low are a foundry and finishing room, with rooms for 




- First Floor, East Building, Wentworth Institute. 



building, east building (left of photograph, figure 152), 
and the power-plant laboratory. Of these the west 
building and the power plant were finished when the 
school opened in 1911; the main building was com- 
pleted in 1 914; and the east building in 191 6. 

The steam power plant laboratory is about 80 feet 
square and is located to the rear of the facade group 
(figure 153). 

The main building is 132 feet long by 66 feet wide. 
It contains in the basement a large laboratory about 
60 feet square, with adjoining offices, for electrical- 
power practice and work in electrical construction, a 
second large laboratory for architectural construction, 
and a large locker room and a wash room. On the 
main floor are two large lecture rooms and the adminis- 
tration offices. The entire second floor is devoted to 
construction in mechanical and architectural drawing 
and design. On the third floor is an assembly hall and 
gallery. The remainder of the third floor and gallery is 
occupied by laboratories, stock rooms, and offices for 
instruction in applied science and practical mechanics. 



Fig. 162. — Pullman Free School oe Manual Training, Pullman 
Illinois. 

pattern storage and supplies, occupying a floor space over 
50 by 100 feet. There is also a gallery floor for cupola 
charging, core making, brass molding, and metal-pat- 
tern making ; two laboratories for industrial chemistry ; 
a blacksmith's shop and a hardening plant; and a 
large lecture room and three smaller rooms for class 
exercises and recitations. 

The east building, which contains about 45,000 square 
feet of floor area, provides four additional classrooms, 
large laboratories for strength of materials, reenforced 
concrete, and building materials. It also provides 
two shops for carpentry and house building and three 
entire floors for the school of printing and the graphic 
arts. 

The Pullman Free School, Pullman, III. — The above 
plan shows the elaborate layout of the Pullman Free 
School of Manual Training, at Pullman, Illinois. The 
site is located in South Chicago, and is near many 
industries as well as near the homes of many working 
people. The plant occupies a site 1250 feet by 1250 
feet, of which about 2 per cent is included in buildings. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




63. — Pullman Free School of Manual Training, Pullman, Illinois. 



The buildings are situated so as to be well lighted 
and ventilated. The grounds are arranged to afford 
athletic and recreational opportunities. 

The name of this school was determined by the terms 
of the will of George M. Pullman. The courses ad- 
vertised include cabinet making, trimming, pattern 
making, blacksmithing, molding and casting, machine 
shop practice, electrical construction and installation, 
and operative engineering. " To complete any one of 
the regular courses of instruction," it is declared in the 
dedicatory announcements, published September, 1916, 
" will require from four to six years. The school is in 
session forty-eight weeks of the year for five days each 
week and for eight hours per day. During the first two 
years one-half of the time 



is devoted to academic 
studies, including English 
history and mathematics ; 
the other half to draw- 
ing, shopwork, and labora- 
tory work. With young 
women, shopwork is re- 
placed by work in cooking 
and sewing." 

The Boys' Vocational 
School, — Newark, New 
Jersey. History and De- 
velopment. — The Boys' 
Vocational School of 
Newark was established 
in April, 19 10, as an ele- 
mentary industrial school, 
with an initial enrollment 
of forty boys. Instruc- 



tion was given in woodwork, mechanical drawing, and 
complementary academic subjects. 

So vital was the need, as demonstrated, for an insti- 
tution of the sort, that in September, 1910, the school 
was enlarged to accommodate 100 boys. A course in • 
metal working was added. In September, 191 1, courses 
in electric wiring and printing were included in the 
curriculum. In 1914 a further expansion was made, 
to accommodate an additional 40 pupils. A later re- 
arrangement enabled the school to have eight classes 
and take care of 160 pupils, at which the capacity has 
remained. A waiting list of applicants averages 180 
pupils. This number was 250 in April, 1918. 

The school was established for boys who through 
necessity or otherwise 
chose to enter the indus- 
trial field at about the age 
of sixteen, and who have 
shown ability for mechani- 
cal work. The main ob- 
ject of the school is to 
prepare boys for appren- 
ticeship to the mechanical 
trades, and is in no way 
intended as a preparatory 
school for the technical 
high schools, although the 
course of study is so ar- 
ranged that entrance to 
the technical high school 
may be had at the comple- 
tion of the course. While 

Wood-working and Forge Shop, Pullman Free School, a P u P iL receives a thorough 

Pullman, Illinois. preparation in trade work, 




BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



the academic side is thorough also. Applicants must 
have completed five years of grammar school work, 
have in mind preparation for a mechanical trade and^ex- 
press a willingness to complete the three years' course. 
Promotions are made by subjects and not by grades. 

Present Location — Equipment — Courses. — The first 
home of the school was in an old building owned by the 
Board of Education, 
and remodeled for vo- 
cational purposes in 
1 910. The shop build- 
ing was erected in 
1848 as an elementary 
school. The academic 
department is in an ele- 
mentary school erected 
in 1908. The buildings 
are of brick, electric 
lighted, wood floors, 
no partitions, and the 
whole a makeshift. 

Equipment for the 
various trade subjects 
taught is inventoried 
as : Electricity, $1200 ; 
printing, $2000 ; ma- 
chine work, $6500 ; 
woodwork, $2500; 
drafting, $1000 ; total, 
$13,200. Value of 
buildings, $12,000. 

Minimum age en- 
trance requirement is 
13 years and for a trade 
subject 14 years. A 
general course is given 
to all pupils during the 
first two years, in order 
to determine the trade 
for which each is best 
adapted. The third 
year is n given to spe- 
cialization in the trade 
or occupation for which the pupil has shown the greatest 
aptitude. By this method the occupation best suited 
to the taste and ability of the pupil is found. The 
courses in the trades require two years each in electricity, 
printing, machine work, woodwork, and drafting. There 
are 48 weeks in the school year, and each course requires 
200 sessions. No extension work is done, but evening 
courses are given. Records of enrollment March 1, 
1918, show: electricity, day pupils 46, night 23 ; print- 
ing, day 36, night 17; machine work, day 42, night 




Fig. 165. — Pullman Free School, 



35; woodwork, day 36, night 11; drafting, day 10, 
night 28. 

Placement and Demand for Graduates. — The school 
makes a practice of placing its graduates in such posi- 
tions as are considered best for their future welfare. 
In most cases the salaries are higher than those ordi- 
narily paid non-trained pupils, and in many, the time 
of apprenticeship is 
shorter. In 1916, 100 
requests were made 
for graduates by em- 
ployers, and the school 
was able to supply 
only about one-third 
of the number desired. 
Numerous requests are 
made for graduates who 
have been out of school 
for one or two years. 
These changes have 
invariably resulted in 
higher wages or promo- 
tions for these young 
men. A Placement 
Committee, composed 
of the faculty of the 
school, attends to this 
important end of the 
school work. 

Need for Enlarge- 
ment of Work Demon- 
strated. — The success 
of the school caused 
much attention in busi- 
ness circles in Newark 
— a most important 
manufacturing center. 
The result was a con- 
certed action of busi- 
ness and manufacturing 
interests, which pro- 
cured the theme of 
vocational education in 
that city to be gone into with great thoroughness. A 
survey or " overview " of the entire subject was there- 
fore caused to be conducted for the Advisory Committee 
of the Board of Education, by Mr. Charles H. Winslow, 
member of the Congressional Committee on National 
Grants in Aid of Vocational Education, Director of the 
Vocational Survey of Richmond, Virginia, The Indiana 
State Survey, etc. 

As a result of the report of the Advisory Committee, 
the Board of Education has taken steps to meet ade- 



Illinois. 



190 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



quately the situation as disclosed, and new buildings 
are to be constructed, ample for the present and future 
vocational education needs of the community. 

Location and Site of New Buildings. — A site 225 by 
241 feet within the industrial center of the city has been 



and is susceptible of being added to on the unit system 
as future needs may develop. No effort has been spared 
to obtain, in the design and arrangement of plan, the 
most advanced type of practical school construction. 
With the new buildings it will be possible to con- 



chosen for the school. The plant, as projected, will siderably enlarge the number of subjects and trades 



cover 95 per cent of this area. Good car service makes 
the school accessible from all parts of the city, and nat- 
ural light and ventilation are not obstructed by adjacent 
buildings. An inquiry was conducted to locate the 
present residence of the pupils, and for this purpose the 
city was divided into four districts. The data obtained 




taught, and to provide for the necessary equipment, its 
proper housing and installation. 

Trade and Industrial Schools for Girls. 1 — The history 
of the establishment of trade and industrial schools 
for girls indicates that the cost of buildings and equip- 
ment has not figured as a prohibitive factor in the in- 
auguration of these experiments. 
In fact, considerable ingenuity has 
marked the transformation of old 
school buildings, dwellings, factory 
lofts, and business buildings into 
shops, and other necessary accom- 
modations for trade schools. 

A common type of housing for 
these prospective schools is found in 
an abandoned grade or high school 
building which is remodeled for 
this purpose. The Trade School in 
Philadelphia, the Girls' Vocational 
School in Minneapolis, Minnesota, 
and in Newark, New Jersey, are of 
this type. 

As the movement for girls' techni- 
cal and trade schools in communities 
frequently has its beginning in the 
activities of philanthropic organ- 
izations interested in the social, 
economic, and educational well 
being of the working girl, it occa- 
sionally receives an estate and 
housing facilities as a heritage or 
memorial to the interests of some 



Basement Floor Plan, Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. 

individual. Such is the case of the Jane Hayes Gates 



indicated that 71.3 per cent of the pupils lived in the 
section (Sussex Avenue between First and Second 
Streets) which has been recommended as the proper 
location. 

Type of Building Selected. — Plans drawn for the new 
school plant show the selection of the reenforced-con- 
crete and steel-sash type of the modern manufacturing 
plant, with its uniformity of interior construction and 
subordination of exterior design to the interior struc- 
tural conditions. Under this form, maximum lighting 
conditions are thus assured, as well as perfect ventila- 
tion and proper square-foot space per pupil. 

The plant as designed will accommodate 800 students, 



Institute in Kansas City, Missouri. Commodious pri- 
vate homes or dwellings, which were centrally located 
but which because of the growth of the city have be- 
come undesirable as residence property, yet remain un- 
converted to business purposes, are found housing the 
Trade School for Girls both in Boston and Worcester. 

Some of the schools have undergone shifts from one 
type of building to another in adjusting themselves 
to an increasing enrollment. A business building in a 
down town district has certain desirable features and 
has been used both in Philadelphia, New York, and New 
Britain, Conn. 



1 The writer is indebted to Mrs. Anna L. Burdick, Special Agent for Trade or Industrial Education for Girls and Women, Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, for this description. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



191 



The Francis Nicholls School in New Orleans was 
built for a ward school, but was made an Industrial 
School on petition of the residents of the district. It 
was opened as a Trade School, September 24, 191 2. 
The new Manhattan Trade School alone was opened 
for the purpose for which it was built — that is, trade 
training for girls. 

In such classes as dressmaking and millinery, equip- 
ment should be adapted to the size of the pupils. The 
height of chairs and tables is important. Cutting 
tables should be 31 to 34 inches high; sewing tables 
from 27 to 29 inches, and chairs from 14 to 
17 inches in height are desirable. Chairs of 
the same height may be used if footrests are 
provided, but it is better to have tables and 
chairs proportionate. A good general rule 
for the height of the table is that it should 
be slightly lower than the elbows of the 
workers. A rule for the height of chairs is 
that they should allow a position with the 
feet firmly resting on the floor and the knees 
slightly higher than the hips. One machine 
for four pupils is necessary in classes which 
use machine-sewing in making garments. 
For plain sewing, such as making shirt 
waists, house dresses, and the like, one 
machine to three pupils is desirable. The 
number of machines per class may be less 
than one to three or four persons only in 
courses which include a great deal of hand 
work. 

Large equipment, such as machines and 
workroom furnishings, as well as tools or 
utensils for general use, should be supplied 
by the school. Personal " tools," such as 
shears, pliers, thimbles, etc., may be pro- 
vided by the school and the pupil en- 
couraged to purchase the same. 

Trade extension courses cannot be satis- 
factorily carried on in schoolrooms equipped 
with regulation desks and chairs. Such rooms are not 
adapted to manual work and the furniture is too cramped 
for adult pupils. Equipment for trade extension courses 
should be the same as in business establishments. 

This brief statement relative to a few of these schools 
sets forth experiences which may be considered char- 
acteristic of others. 

The Manhattan Trade School. — The Manhattan 
Trade School was established in November, 1902, as 
the result of a study made by a group of people inter- 
ested in the sociological, economic, and educational 
status of the young working girl in New York City. 
Private initiative is responsible for the founding of the 



school, and voluntary contributions for the maintenance 
during the experimental stage. 

The building selected for the school was a large pri- 
vate house at 233 West 14th street, which was equipped 
like a factory, and could comfortably accommodate 
one hundred pupils. In June, 1906, the school moved 
into a new business building at 209-213 East 23d street, 
which could offer daily instruction to about five hun- 
dred girls. The location was chosen because of its ac- 
cessibility to the business district and to transporta- 
tion facilities. The institution was taken over by the 




• FIR.JT - FLOOR. -PLAN ' 
Fig. 167. — Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. 

public school system September 1, 1910, and main- 
tained in these quarters until September, 191 8. The new 
building at Twenty-second and Lexington Avenue, a few 
blocks from the site of the old building, was opened on 
September 9, 1918, by the Department of Education. 
The building will accommodate 1 200 girls ; 600 are en- 
rolled at present. 

The first floor contains a spacious salesroom with at- 
tractive show windows on Twenty-second street and on 
Lexington Avenue, a restaurant capable of accommo- 
dating about seventy-five, and a well-equipped kitchen. 
The principal's office, the various other offices, and a 
lecture hall are on the second floor. The third floor 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




- J E CO M D • FLOOR. • PLAN • 
- Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. 




• THIR-Ti • FLOOR- • PLAN - 
169. — Vocational School, Newark, New Jersey. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



i93 



is divided into three large light sewing rooms, a large 
stock room, and plenty of wardrobe space. The fourth 
floor is similar to the third. On the fifth floor are four 
academic rooms and two other rooms, one of which will 
probably be given over to the millinery classes. The 
sixth floor contains rooms which it is likely will be de- 
voted to the novelty work, art, manicuring, and hair- 
dressing. The dressmaking and fitting rooms are on 
the seventh floor, and a spacious power-machine operat- 
ing room and a cutting room occupy the eighth floor. 
On the ninth floor is a large lunch room for the girls 
and a kitchen where they will undoubtedly learn to 
cook. The tenth floor contains the gymnasium, lockers, 
and shower baths. The roof also is unusually at- 
tractive and is to be equipped for outdoor athletics. 

Certain trades, or combination of trades, to insure 
all-the-year-round employment, are taught. Among 
those taught now, as major subjects, always carrying 
with them the related subjects, are dressmaking, milli- 
nery, lamp-shade making, electric power machine op- 
erating on clothing, embroidery, and straw ; pasting 
trades, including sample mounting, novelty case mak- 
ing, French edge making, embroidery design and per- 
forating of embroidery patterns, laundry work, cafe- 
teria work, manicuring, and shampooing. The last 
two have been added this year to enable the girls to 
care for themselves properly. In all work special em- 
phasis is laid on the necessity for the trade worker to 
keep in good physical condition. 

By the sale of the products, though not an end in 
itself, the pupils are brought in touch with the real trade 
problems. No order is taken unless it serves the edu- 
cational needs of the class. While an important fea- 
ture from the standpoint of economy in cost, its educa- 
tional value is paramount. Of the $20,000 received 
from goods in the year 1918, $16,000 was paid for 
supplies. 

Milwaukee Public School of Trades for Girls. — In 
July, 1909, the Milwaukee Board of School Directors 
authorized the establishment of a school of Trades for 
Girls. The State Normal School building, vacated dur- 
ing the summer of 1909, was chosen for the location of 
the new school which was opened on December 6. To 
the original building a new addition has been added to 
accommodate the large number of applicants, the wait- 
ing list running as high as 200 names at a time. Four 
hundred girls are provided for in the building at the 
present time. 

The school is located on Wells Street and occupies 
the southern half of the block between Eighteenth and 
Nineteenth streets. Transportation lines are accessible 
and close connections may be made with all car lines 
which run in close proximity to the school. 



The school year is eleven months in length. Each 
weekly schedule consists of thirty-five hours. School 
hours are from 8.30 to 12.00 and from 1.00 to 4.30 daily 
except Saturday. Approximately two-fifths of the 
student's time during her course is devoted to work 
supplemental to her chosen trade and vitally essential 
to the skilled worker. The remaining three-fifths is 
spent in actual shop practice. One-half of the time 
spent in the shop must be devoted to trade work for the 
school and one-half may be devoted to the girl's own 
needs. 

Students must supply their own drawing instruments 
and all drawing material, and the small tools needed 
in their respective trades, such as scissors, tape line, 
needles, emery, etc. 

The various kinds of dressmaking trades, millinery, 
applied art and design have been selected to offer for 
instruction. Those desiring instruction in other trades 
are requested to make application. On receipt of a 
sufficient number of requests to make it evident that 
the demand warrants the expense of equipment, the 
school will consider the establishment of courses in the 
trades desired. Household science is taught as a course 
supplemental to the trades. 

The Worcester Massachusetts Girls' 1 Trade School. 
— The Worcester Girls' Trade School was established 
September, 1911, under the state and city ordinance 
providing for Independent Industrial Schools under 
the management and control of a Board of Trustees. 

The school is located on State Street at the corner of 
Court Hill. It may be reached from every section of 
the city direct or by transfer. A remodeled dwelling 
provides for office, salesroom, power-machine operating 
room, and lunch room on the first floor. The dress- 
making shops are on the second and the art and 
design classes are on the third floor. A separate 
dwelling is maintained for the four-year home-making 
courses. 

By the generosity of David Fanning of the Worcester 
Corset Company this school has received a gift of 
$100,000 in recognition of its work. 

The school year is 42 weeks in length and maintains 
a summer session of six weeks. The day school is open 
from 8.30 to 12.00 a.m. and from 1.00 to 4.45 p.m. 
every day except Saturday. The evening school ses- 
sion is 24 weeks. Classes meet Monday and Wednes- 
day or Tuesday and Thursday from 7.30 to 9.30 p.m. 
The courses consist of short units of millinery and sew- 
ing which leads to dressmaking. A four-year course in 
home-making is offered and two-year trade courses in 
dressmaking, millinery, power-machine operating, and 
cookery, together with allied and supplementary sub- 
jects. Every girl's program includes : 



194 

One trade 22 to 25 hours per week 

Cooking 3 

Art • 3 to a\ ' 

Academic subjects .... 3 to 4I 

Gymnastics 12 ' 

Jane Hayes Gates Institute. — The Jane Hayes Gates 
Institute is a Home Economics and Trade School for 
girls and women under the direction of the Kansas City- 
Board of Education. 

The house is particularly well suited for this purpose. 
Trade efficiency and good-home-making is the ideal of 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The courses are planned to suit the needs of different 
classes of students, among whom is the girl who has just 
finished the elementary school and wishes to prepare 
herself for a definite line of trade work. The girls have 
the choice of two two-year courses, millinery or dress- 
making. These courses comprise fifteen hours' work in 
the laboratory, which is conducted as a shop, three 
hours English, three hours mathematics, two hours of 
physiology and sanitation and textiles, four hours of 
industrial art, one hour gymnasium, and three hours of 
cookery. The fifteen hours a week shopwork consists 




all instruction. The rooms to the right and left of the 
doorway on the first floor are used as dressmaking and 
millinery laboratories. Lockers, irons and ironing 
boards, tables and chairs have been installed. The 
dining-room and kitchen are used for the preparation 
and serving of the' lunch. The kitchen is large enough 
for several student armchairs, so a demonstration can 
be given there. The second floor has two domestic 
science laboratories perfectly appointed in every way. 
Another room is given over to the Industrial Art classes, 
another for the academic work, another for a cloak 
room, and another a rest room, which serves also as a 
demonstration bedroom. 



in making certain required articles of clothing which 
are chosen as representing the different problems which 
are encountered in the dressmaking and millinery fields. 
An effort is made to develop judgment and taste as well 
as technique. The art work shows the use of the funda- 
mental principles of design in the designing of clothing 
and house furnishings. Line, spacing, and color are 
studied with a special reference to the personality of 
the individual for whom the garment is designed. Color 
harmonies are worked out in various kinds and tex- 
tures of materials suitable for blouses, dresses, suits, 
draperies, and wall coverings. Plaids and striped 
materials suitable for the different types of figures are 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



195 



studied. In sketching, the emphasis is placed on de- 
sign rather than drawing. 

The course in cookery is planned to teach the different 
methods of food preparation and the principles under- 
lying them. Besides this, each student takes her turn 
in the lunch room, where she has charge of the purchas- 
ing, preparation, and serving of meals. The keeping of 
household accounts, division of income, making house- 
hold budgets are taught. There is a school garden 
which gives the girls some experience in production of 
food materials as well as supplying school cookery 
classes. 

The second group of students consists of girls to 
whom the regular high school course does not appeal. 
These girls are particularly interested in the home 
problems and select courses which deal with the scientific 
solution of these. 

In addition to these two groups the school offers 
special courses in Commercial Art, which prepares 
women to enter employment in the advertisement de- 
partment of our business houses, in millinery, dressmak- 
ing, cookery, and home management. The courses last 
named are based on the home problems that every 
woman faces sooner or later, and have been so popular 
that it has proven to the directors of the school that 
there is a tremendous need and desire of the women of 
the city to learn to do their part of the world's work 
efficiently. 

III. Buildings and Equipment 

Types of Schools. — Vocational agriculture instruction 
is now being given in three types of secondary schools : 
(1) Separate agricultural schools, including congressional 
district, county, and privately endowed agricultural 
schools ; (2) consolidated rural schools ; and (3) small 
city and town high schools. 

The Vocational Education Act of 191 7, which ap- 
propriates Federal funds for the promotion of agri- 
cultural instruction in schools of less than college grade, 
provides assistance for approved work in schools of all 
three types under public supervision and control. 

The act does not permit the expenditure of Federal 
moneys for plant or equipment for the schools established 
• or in part supported by the act, yet through the pro- 
vision which requires approval by the Federal Board of 
standards for plant, equipment, and maintenance, the 
Federal and State Boards for Vocational Education are 
interested in these problems, and increased attention 
will undoubtedly be given to them by communities 
and persons interested in introducing, providing facili- 
ties for, or carrying on such instruction. 

The act mentions and provides for part-time and 
evening as well as all-day vocational schools, but build- 



ings which meet the needs of all-day agricultural in- 
struction will usually be satisfactory for part-time 
and evening classes and will not be discussed separately 
here. 

It is obvious that the character and extent of build- 
ings and equipment needed for the most effective con- 
duct of vocational agriculture instruction must differ 
with the type of school. 

The main business of the separate agricultural school 
is to give vocational instruction in agriculture. In the 
consolidated rural school and in the small city or town 
high school, vocational instruction in agriculture exists 
as a single department of a general school. 

Separate agricultural schools commonly serve much 
larger areas than do the consolidated rural and small 
city and town high schools. The majority of their 
pupils live away from home, while probably all of the 
agricultural pupils of the consolidated rural high school 
and the majority of the agricultural pupils of the small 
city or town high school live at home. 

Separate agricultural schools ordinarily have a num- 
ber of agricultural teachers and give numerous strictly 
agricultural courses. In the case of the consolidated 
rural and small town or city high school there is com- 
monly but one agricultural teacher, and the number of 
agricultural courses given is necessarily limited by this 
fact. 

Types of Buildings. — It is evident from the above 
facts' that the separate agricultural school must have a 
more extensive equipment in land, buildings, laboratory 
and shop facilities and apparatus, and in general farm 
equipment than is needed for the consolidated rural or 
small city or town high school. As a matter of fact, 
most of these schools own farms of from twenty to sev- 
eral hundred acres and have from one to several build- 
ings devoted entirely to agricultural instruction ; where 
consolidated rural high schools serve a large number of 
school districts they sometimes have separate agricul- 
tural buildings and considerable land. But ordinarily 
they, like the small city or town high school in which 
agriculture is taught, have but little land and but one 
general school building, of which a part is devoted to 
agricultural instruction. 

The number and kinds of buildings needed for the 
separate agricultural school vary according to condi- 
tions. Besides the main school building or buildings, 
various farm buildings will be needed, the number and. 
sizes depending upon the size of the school farm, the 
kind of farming, and the course of study. Barns will 
be needed for work animals ; sheds for stock, hog houses, 
poultry houses, etc., must be provided where animal 
husbandry is emphasized. Glass houses will be needed 
in truck and certain horticultural districts. Granaries, 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



cribs, etc. will be needed in grain districts. Provision 
for housing farm implements must be made wherever 
there is a school farm or exhibit collections of imple- 
ments. 

In the case of separate Congressional District Agri- 
cultural Schools and other similar schools serving a 
large area, some provision must be made for the housing 
and boarding of pupils who come from a distance. Where 
both boys and girls attend these schools, additional 



adopted with very satisfactory results in certain special 
and county agricultural schools in the East, and might 
well be more widely used for similar institutions. Its 
chief feature is the " arena " or inner court, within the 
walls of the school building. Doors large enough to 
drive in teams, stock, bring in pieces of machinery, etc., 
are provided. It is so arranged that it can conveniently 
be used for local fairs or exhibits, showing agricultural 
displays of farm crops, canned and preserved products, 




Plan of Basement Floor under Lecture Room. 



^ Floor under Social Room. 



Fi^5T Floor Plan 



Smith Agricultural 

Northampton, Mass. 



School 



dormitory facilities must be provided. Even where 
the boys and girls do not live in dormitories belonging 
to the school the responsibility for their supervision 
rests upon the school. There is, therefore, a natural 
tendency toward general provision of dormitories for 
schools where the pupils cannot go home at night, as 
this decreases supervision difficulties besides present- 
ing other obvious advantages. 

Smith Agricultural School. — -One excellent type of 
school building for a separate agricultural school is 
shown in the plan of Smith Agricultural School, at 
Northampton, Mass. (figure 172). This type has been 



etc. It may also be used for community gatherings, 
demonstrations, lectures, etc. The social and agricul- 
tural teaching advantages of such an arrangement for a 
separate agricultural school in a rural community are 
apparent. 

In addition to a main school building and the neces- 
sary farm buildings, the separate agricultural school 
frequently has from one to several other school build- 
ings, as for example, a special farm mechanics build- 
ing, a dairy building, etc. The number, nature, and 
size of these special buildings will be determined largely 
by the local and individual conditions of each school. 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



197 



The general plan of such special buildings for use in 
vocational agriculture instruction will become more 
and more closely standardized as the conditions for 
most efficient instruction in dairy work, farm mechanics, 
and other special agricultural subjects instruction are 
worked out and agreed upon. 

In the case of the consolidated rural high school and 
the small city or town high school, instruction in agri- 
culture is ordinarily given in the same building with 
other high school instruction. In some cases grammar 
and elementary grades are even housed under this same 
roof. In the case of these schools, then, provision for 
vocational agriculture should consist in adding, be- 
sides the usual science laboratories, an agricultural 
laboratory and an agricultural recitation room. One 
satisfactory plan for such' rooms is shown in figure 173, 
the agricultural laboratory of the Logan County High 
School at Sterling, Colorado. 

Plan of Combination Laboratory and Recitation Room. 
— For the very small school a combination of labora- 
tory and recitation room may be satisfactorily used. 
Where possible, it is an advantage to have the agri- 
cultural laboratory on the ground floor, so that the 
students may easily, pass in and out at any time with- 
out disturbing other classes, and that illustrative ma- 
terial may readily be brought to and taken from the 
laboratory. 

If farm mechanics instruction is given, it is desirable, 
when possible, that it be given in a separate building, 
whatever the type of school. If it is given in the same 
building with other school instruction, it is difficult 
to prevent the noise necessarily incident to the work 
from disturbing the other school work. Ideally, there 
should probably be a separate room for the carpentry, 



J 




DDDDDDnnDDD 

Lecture Room 

DnnnnnnDDDD 

DDDDDDDDDDn 
V [ST] 

T 1 - 

\ I Demonstration |0 





-Plan of Combination Laboratory and Recitation Roi 
County Industrial Arts High School. 



Agricultural Laboratory 

The. Logan County Industrial Arts 

High School 

sterling, colorado. 

Fig. 173. 

for the blacksmithing, and for the toggery. But though 
this can often be provided for in Congressional District 
and County High Schools, the other classes of schools will 
usually have to be content with more modest quarters. 
Shop Building, Sterling, Cclo. — One type 
of separate shop building is shown in figure 
175, that of the Logan County High School 
at Sterling, Colorado. 

A Combination Shop Suggested. — Where 
it is not possible to have a separate building 
for shopwork, a room in another building, 
possibly even in the basement of the school 
building proper, may have to suffice tempo- 
rarily at least. New York bulletin 626 
suggests the following shop room : 

"Under average conditions the room for shop- 
work can be found. It should be at least 16 by 24 
feet in area, well lighted, and preferably with a 
south exposure. Rooms not already suitable for 
the purpose may often be made so at small expense. 
If absolutely necessary, a basement room may be 
fitted up. In this case additional windows will 
frequently be needed. Under the row of windows 
there should be a continuous bench, preferably 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




5hop 

The. Logan County Industrial Arts 

High School 

sterling, colorado. 
Fig. 175. 

built of two-inch planks. This bench ought to be 24 to 30 inches 
wide. It should be provided with wood vises, at intervals of 
5 feet. 

" At the end of the bench nearest the forge and anvil there should 
be one blacksmith's iron or machinist's swivel vise. A good 
grindstone, mounted by the pupils, can be placed conveniently, 
and vertical cabinets for the tools belonging to the school can be 
built by the first class from their own designs. Some open space 
should be reserved in the middle of the room for the use of saw- 
horses, for setting up work in course of construction, and for 
testing the operation of machinists. The forge 
should be so placed as to exhaust the smoke 
and gases into the regular furnace stack when 



Figure*i76 shows a combination shop which may be 
made to give satisfactory service in a small school. 

Since the majority of the agricultural pupils of the 
consolidated rural high school and the small town high 
school live at home and can carry on supervised practi- 
cal work there, such schools will ordinarily own but little 
land for agricultural uses. They will therefore need 
but few farm buildings, farm implements, etc., compared 
with the separate agricultural schools. Primary factors 
in determining what these shall be will be the amount 
of land owned or leased for agricultural purposes, and 
the character of the crops grown. 

As has been indicated, agricultural schools will have a 
series of agricultural laboratories and recitation rooms, — ■ 
as for example a farm crops laboratory, a horticulture 
laboratory, etc. In the smaller schools where voca- 
tional agriculture is taught, there may be but one agri- 
cultural laboratory, used for different classes. In this 
case it must be fitted up to meet the various needs. 

There must be laboratory tables suitable for the 
kinds of work undertaken, with gas, sinks, running 
water, etc. Where there must be a single combination 
recitation and laboratory room, flat-topped tables and 
chairs with suitable cases for apparatus and supplies 
must be provided. There should be cabinet cases for 
demonstration material, grains, seeds, feeds, fertilizers, 
etc. 

Unless the school has ample space in its library room 
or rooms for the shelving and care of agricultural books, 
bulletins, and magazines, provision must be made for 
them in the agricultural laboratory, or recitation room. 
There should be abundant storage room for illustrative 
collections, extra pieces of apparatus and supplies. 
There must be suitable provision for the storage and 
for the display of soil service maps, charts, pictures 



"The ceiling of the room should be properly 
prepared to deaden the sound of work done in 
the shop. The under side of floor joists over- 
head should be sheathed with ' deadening felt,' 
and this covered by a tight wooden ceiling or by 
lathing and plastering. Metallic ceiling should 
not be used, because of its sound-conducting 
properties. 

" The floor should be of wood except around 
the forge and anvil. Cement floors are cold 
and hard on the pupil's feet. An edged tool 
may be spoiled by dropping on a cement floor. 
If cement foundation is used, the corner de- 
signed for the forge may be left uncovered when 
the wood floor is laid. If the room to be used 
as a shop already has a wood floor, a covering of 
zinc, tin or galvanized iron should be placed in the 
corner where the forge and anvil are to stand." 




BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



199 



of live stock of the various kinds, and other illustrative 
material. 

Discussion of the special apparatus and equipment 
desirable for use in connection with the different agri- 
cultural courses involves so many considerations that 
it cannot be adequately treated in a few pages. It 
will therefore not be touched upon here. 



sible, skilled worker in at least four or five skilled 
occupations; under emergency conditions this number 
may be greatly increased. In addition, she is usually 
joint owner and manager of the whole enterprise, and 
she must be skilled in household management. 

Schools offering vocational instruction in home eco- 
nomics should provide for three types of workrooms. 




Basement Plan 



Nlw Shop Building fop, 

NORTHAMF 



Smith Agricultural School. 



IV. Home Economics 

Purpose of Vocational Home Economics Schools. 1 — 

Home economics as a vocational subject has for its con r 
trolling purpose the preparation of girls and women for 
useful employment as home-makers and as house 
daughters engaged in the occupations and management 
of the home, preparation for useful employment in an 
occupation which is a composite of undifferentiated occu- 
pations requiring various forms of skill and of related 
knowledge. Such employment may or may not be wage 
earning employment. It is wage earning employment 
for household assistants. It is not wage earning employ- 
ment in the general acceptance of the term for home- 
makers who are at the same time workers and managers 
in their respective enterprises. As such they have need 
for forms of vocational education especially adapted 
to meet their needs both as workers and as managers. 

Home-making Activities. — Home-making is both a 
social and a business enterprise. Under ordinary cir- 
cumstances the efficient home-maker must be a respon- 



First, adequate space and equipment for instruction 
and laboratory practice in all of the home activities, 
such as housekeeping, garment making, dressmaking, 
food study and cookery, serving of meals, laundry, 
home nursing, and the care of children. 

Second, adequate space and equipment for instruc- 
tion and laboratory practice in the related sciences and 
art which are fundamental to a proper understanding 
and application of home-making processes. These will 
include such subjects as general science, applied physi- 
ology and home nursing, household chemistry, house- 
hold physics and applied drawing and design, costume 
design, house furnishing and decorating. 

Third, there should be adequate space and equipment 
for the non-vocational or general academic subjects. 

Schools Teaching Home Economics. — -Vocational 
home-making is offered in three kinds of schools, namely, 
day schools, part-time schools, and evening schools. The 
type of instruction does not vary materially in these 
three kinds of schools, and the plant and equipment 
which is best designed for efficient work in the day 



1 Prepared by Miss Anna E. Richardson, Acting Assistant Director for Home Economics, Federal Board for Vocational Education. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



schools will serve for work in part-time and evening 
schools. For the purpose of this article only the day 
school will be discussed. 

Types of All-Day Schools. — All-day schools are of 
two types, separate home-making schools which provide 
equipment and space for the entire vocational and non- 
vocational curriculum, and home-making departments 
of trade schools, general elementary, and high schools 
where space and equipment is provided for the home eco- 
nomics subjects but where the classrooms of the general 
school are used for the work in applied science and art 
and the non-vocational subjects. 

Separate Schools of Home-making have been housed 
in whatever type of building was available. The types 
of building in common use are old school buildings and 
remodeled homes. The Newark Girls' Vocational School 
is a fair representative of the first type, and the Essex 
County School at Bloomfield, New Jersey, is a repre- 
sentative of the use of the second type of building. 

For the separate school the remodeled house is more 
desirable if the vocational class is not too large. It 
provides the opportunity for work under approximately 
home conditions, as the house may be furnished as a 
home and all of the home-making activities provided 
for. Unfortunately most of the homes so used are very 
large, old-fashioned houses with the inconvenience of 
large rooms, waste spaces, and poorly planned working 
areas. 

Home-making Departments of Trade Schools. • — The 
home-making departments of the trade school, as for ex- 
ample the Worcester Trade School, Worcester, Massa- 
chusetts, and the Jane Hayes Gates School, Kansas 
City, Missouri (see figures 170 and 171, page 194) offer 
the opportunity for equipment which approximates trade 
equipment. Some of these departments are fitted up 
with laboratory kitchens and sewing-rooms, but more 
often the sewing-rooms are equipped for shopwork and 
the food preparation is a part of the lunch room work. 
The equipment for technical home economics is good, 
but in such departments the equipment for related art 
and science is apt to be inadequate. 

Home-making Departments of Elementary or Secondary 
Schools. — When home-making is a department of the 
general public schools, we usually find the laboratory 
type of equipment, the extent of space and equipment 
depending upon the school. In the best schools the 
kitchen laboratory is fitted with individual work-tables 
to accommodate 15 to 20 students. A dining-room is 
furnished for the serving of meals and adequate storage 
and pantry space is provided. The sewing-room is 
fitted with tables and chairs of the right height for 
comfort in sewing and cutting. In many of the schools, 
housekeeping apartments are provided in addition, 



which are used for class instruction in home manage- 
ment, home nursing, and house furnishing and decorat- 
ing. The school science laboratories are used for the 
related science instruction, and the regular classrooms 
for the non-vocational work. This type of equipment 
is common to home economics departments throughout 
the country, and is discussed at length in another sec- 
tion of this book. Unmodified, the straight laboratory 
equipment is apt to be too formal, too remote from the 
home activities of the girl and is one of the reasons why 
much of the home economics as given does not produce 
independent home workers. 

Modifications of Equipment. — The recognition of the 
fact that, if instruction in vocational home-making is 
to be effective, it must be carried on under as nearly 
normal conditions as possible, coupled with the fact 
that most of this training must be given in the schools, 
as it is impossible to provide home-making training for 
each girl in her own home, has led to various modifica- 
tions of the school equipment. 

The usual floor space devoted to Home Economics 
does not permit the instruction to partake of the ac- 
tivities of the home to a sufficient degree. In the be- 
ginning, equipments were installed in vacated class- 
rooms or in unused basement space and were limited to 
small composite tables containing the stove and equip- 
ment, for the use of the pupils. 

In a High School. — With the advent of vocational 
home economics it has been found necessary to increase 
to a considerable degree the floor space available. The 
plan suggested in figure 178 is intended to be incorpo- 
rated in the general plan for a cosmopolitan high school 
as a department for vocational home economics. The 
architect will find it necessary to apply this suggestion 
to local conditions. It may not be possible to allot to 
this department the floor area shown. On the other hand, 
in some buildings additional space may be available. 

In this plan the entire space covering 4400 square 
feet is divided by partitions about nine feet high, into 
sewing-room, fitting room, four unit kitchens, rest room, 
laundry, storerooms, and an apartment, made up of 
dining-room, kitchen, bedroom, and bath. The sewing- 
room is amply provided with sewing tables 2' 8" high, 
comfortable chairs, hinged ironing boards and ade- 
quate locker space, and has adjoining storage and fitting 
rooms. 

The apartment may be used for various home man- 
agement problems, service of meals, care of the house, 
home nursing, and house planning, furnishing, and 
decorating. The kitchen of the apartment is fitted up 
as a convenient home kitchen and the arrangement is 
planned to save time and energy in manipulative pro- 
cesses. This kitchen, with the other units, is used for 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 




class work, three to five students in a kitchen, depend- 
ing upon the number of students in the class. The 
kitchens differ slightly in size and equipment, so as to 
allow for some experimentation as to the most effective 
arrangement. Ample space is allowed outside of the 
units for chairs and a blackboard where the class may 
be assembled, without loss of time, for explanations, 
discussions, and instruction. This is a very important 
feature, often neglected in schools with unit kitchen 
equipment. The open alcove adjoining the apartment 
kitchen may be fitted up as a rest room or a sitting 
room. This provides for a place to read or work and 
gives further opportunity for working out problems in 
decorating, furnishing, and care. 

It has been found that a class of from ten to twenty 
pupils composes a working group under one instructor. 
The plan as suggested will ordinarily provide instruc- 
tion for as many as sixty pupils under the direction of 
three teachers. 



As a means of greater flexibility, the rooms should be 
designed with all interior dividing partitions of light 
construction and extending only nine feet above the 
floor, with open ceilings. The partitions should be con- 
structed so that the walls may be decorated in keeping 
with similar rooms in the home. The interior parti- 
tions between the " unit rooms " and the open space 
have in most cases been omitted in order that the in- 
structor may have an opportunity to supervise the 
work of the pupils more readily. 

Essential Points. Light. — All "unit rooms" and 
floor space for general instruction should be well lighted 
by natural light. The rooms should be wired for the 
usual artificial light as specified elsewhere in this chap- 
ter. In addition, extra service outlets should be ex- 
tended to the equipment in each of the unit rooms. 

Floors. — All floors should be of wood, or, if of con- 
crete, covered with battleship linoleum. 

Interior Partitions should be constructed of light 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



frame work covered either with plaster or compo board, 
so that the walls may be decorated similarly to the 
home. Doors should be hung on the openings in the 
bedroom, bathroom, fitting room, storage rooms, and 
laundry. In the partition separating the dining-room 
and kitchen a combination buffet and kitchen cabinet 
should be constructed. This should be flush with the 
wall on the dining-room side, above the counter shelf, 
and fitting with a sliding door permitting the passage of 
articles from the kitchen to the dining-room. 

Ceilings. — The usual height ceiling, from n to 13 
feet, is satisfactory. 

Heating and Ventilation should correspond to the 
usual requirements for school buildings. 

Supply Rooms. — In the supply rooms, adequate 
shelving should be placed for the storage of a consider- 
able quantity of material. For the storage of dresses, 



-L 



Floor Plans of Unit Kitchens 
Fig. 179. 

large built-in cabinets with sliding doors in which dresses 
can hang at full length, should be provided. Individual 
pupil's lockers should also be constructed in the sewing 
room as indicated. These should be equipped with 
individual locks, fitted with a master key. 

Equipment. — The plan should show the installa- 
tion of all equipment, so that service and plumbing 
outlets may be extended to the fixtures. The equip- 
ment should be similar to that used in the average 
home, and should be selected of the best makes so as to 
stand considerable usage. A four-hole gas range with 
baking and broiling ovens should be placed in each 
kitchen. The kitchen sink, whenever possible, should 
be fitted with a double drain board. While a porcelain 
drain board is more desirable for sanitary reasons, ex- 
perience shows that a wooden drain board is more 
serviceable. All kitchen sinks, drain boards, etc., should 
be installed so that the working surface is from 36 to 38 
inches above the floor. Each kitchen should include a 
kitchen cabinet, preferably a built-in combination 
work table with shelves and a storage space below. 



The laundry equipment should include two batteries 
of three tubs each for washing purposes. These should 
be connected to hot and cold water with the hot-water 
heater in the room. A family electric washing machine 
and a 42-inch electrically operated mangle and electric 
irons should be included in the equipment. The electric 
wiring should provide convenient service outlets for this 
equipment. At least five ironing-boards should be 
provided. These should be so attached to the wall 
that they may be raised to an upright position when not 
in use. A clothes dryer connected to steam coils is an 
essential part of the equipment. Simple home equip- 
ments should also be used and comparison made as to 
their relative efficiency. 

A much simpler plan for the unit kitchen is illus- 
trated in figure 179. This shows the main laboratory 
space divided by partitions into three average size 
kitchens equipped as home kitchens. It is recognized 
by every one that the most valuable experience is ob- 
tained when the pupils are engaged in production under 
the same conditions that exist in the factory, the home, 
or on the farm. 

For the sake of economy and the stimulus that comes 
from the preparation of a product which is to be used, 
some method must be devised for using the dishes pre- 
pared in the school kitchen. Most modern schools 
include a lunch room, and the product of the home eco- 
nomics department may be used there. 

Since most lunch rooms are located on the first floor, 
and as a rule the home economics department on the 
second or third floor of the building, a dumb-waiter 
connecting the two is a necessary addition to the equip- 
ment. 

The practice house is an extension of the plan to pro- 
vide home equipment in the school for instruction in 
home economics. In most cases the girls do not live 
in the house, but the usual home-making activities are 
carried on, including preparation of the noon meal, 
laundry, house cleaning, etc. This, in combination 
with the school equipment, provides for each girl an 
opportunity to do independently the work of the home 
for a definite period of several weeks or more. 

Cafeterias and lunch rooms are other means of fur- 
nishing vocational experience under normal conditions. 
Such experience is of great value when the preparation 
of the lunch is made an educational project. Most 
careful planning is necessary, however, to see that the 
positions are changed frequently enough, so that the work 
does not degenerate into routing practical work. 

Standards in the Selection and Equipment of Rooms 
for Home Economics Instruction. — In utilizing an old 
building or in planning a new one, there are certain 
fundamental standards which are of importance in 



BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT FOR VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS 



203 



choosing and equipping rooms for home-making in- 
struction, which should be taken into account by the 
architect. These deal with location, size, shape, light- 
ing, ventilation, floor materials, and wall finishes. 

Location. — The school kitchen should be a corner 
room ; the cross drafts eliminate odors and provide ven- 
tilation. The corner should be chosen which shade, 
prevailing winds, or other local conditions make coolest. 
The first floor is to be preferred, as it is more accessible 
for supplies and the removal of waste. This should not 
be a basement room, as a basement room seldom pro- 
vides adequate light, ventilation or other opportunities 
for healthful work. The top floor of the building pre- 
vents odors from spreading through the building, and is 
satisfactory if the building is not more than three stories, 
or if there is good storage space so that supplies may be 
purchased in large quantities, and adequate elevator 
service is available. 

Good light is an essential for the rooms where sew- 
ing is taught; therefore a north exposure should be 
used if possible since- it provides the best light. The 
location of the rooms for the other home-making ac- 
tivities is not so important. The rooms should, how- 
ever, be planned in relation to each other so that the 
work done can be accomplished at the least expenditure 
of time and effort. 

Size. — The size of the rooms will be determined by 
the number of pupils to be taught and the use of the 
room, whether or not it is to be used for only one home- 
making activity or for a combination work room. 
Twenty students should be the maximum number taught 
in a vocational class, and fewer are desirable. The 



working area per pupil in either food or clothing classes 
should be about 30 square feet distributed in a rectan- 
gular space of about 30 feet by 25 feet. There should 
be aisle space of not less than three feet in width and 
ample storage space for all equipment. 

A square or slightly rectangular room is best fitted 
for a kitchen, dining room, or pantry. For a sewing- 
room a narrow room is best, as it allows the light to 
come from one side and fall all the way across the 
room. 

Lighting. — The rooms should be well lighted, the 
glass area should be not less than one-fourth the floor 
area. Good artificial lighting should be provided, 
conforming to the usual standards for artificial lighting, 
that is, it should be adequate, suitably placed and 
easily available. For sewing the same standards as 
for cooking should prevail with more allowance for the 
adjustability of artificial lights and in general with more 
emphasis placed on light. 

Ventilation should be as nearly as possible perfect, to 
insure both the health and comfort of the students. 
If a ventilating system is not in use in the building, 
ventilation must be secured by windows opening at 
both top and bottom, and the school kitchen should 
have windows on two sides of the room. 

Wall finishes will be determined by the location and 
use of the room. In general they should be light-col- 
ored and easily cleaned. 

All plans for home economics departments should 
be submitted by the architect to a well-qualified home 
economics teacher. This will insure the equipment 
being adapted to the needs of the school. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 

By Robert T. Legge, M.D., Professor of Hygiene and University Physician in the University of California, Berkeley, 
California; Fellow of American College of Surgeons ; Captain, Medical. Corps, U. S. Army. 



Ventilation. Odors. Temperature. Humidity. Air Currents. Bacteria. 
Open Air Schools. Health and Safety Welfare. 



Dust. Heating. Lighting. Desks. Plumbing. 



The Hygiene of Schools 

A volume of this sort, prepared by specialists, each 
of whom deals with problems from his own standpoint, 
be it aesthetic, economic, or some other, would be incom- 
plete without a chapter on school hygiene. The subject 
is obviously very important, for it deals with the 
health of the occupants of schoolrooms and buildings. 
Scientific knowledge gathered from research and clinical 
observations in many places is available, and it must be 
applied to modern schoolhouses, in order that these 
shall conform to certain requirements and standards. 
Many studies of the situation have been made in various 
states by educational and public health officials, and it 
is the general opinion of such observers that one-half of 
the schoolhouses in this country should be destroyed 
on account of their unsanitary character. Despite 
such opinion school authorities and trustees continue 
to erect highly unsuitable school buildings without 
consulting specialists whose services in the premises 
are indispensable for the safeguarding of public health. 
Of the many problems that are to be considered, those of 
health and safety are first in importance ; second are 
those of convenience and the promotion of comfort. 
Attention to these makes the pupils' and teachers' 
workshop liveable and makes possible the elimination of 
much lost motion, and at the same time conduces to 
happiness and intellectual development. 

It is the purpose of the writer to present the important 
hygienic factors necessary in the modern scientifically 
constructed schoolhouses. 

Ventilation. — Ventilation may be defined as the 
changing or removal of confined air, charged with chemical 
or physical impurities, by normal outside air. To dis- 
cuss this very important subject from a hygienic stand- 
point, we must be familiar with the chemical and physical 



properties of air, the physiology of respiration and 
circulation, as well as the effect of ventilation upon the 
cutaneous and nervous systems. It required two com- 
missions on ventilation in this country to solve this 
problem, and their labors have not yet been completed. 1 
Normal or pure air, which is more characteristic of 
rural than of urban districts, is composed of a mixture 
of gases, consisting by volume approximately of 20.65 
parts of oxygen, 77.11 parts of nitrogen, 0.79 part argon, 
0.03 part of carbon dioxide, and 1.4 parts of aqueous 
vapor. There are traces of other gases which are, how- 
ever, for our purposes, of slight importance. Changes 
in the composition of air are produced by the presence 
of human beings when confined within close quarters, 
as each person so confined exhales at each breath 4.4 per 
cent of carbon dioxide, thereby increasing the amount of 
this gas and diminishing the relative amount of oxygen 
present. At the same time moisture and heat are 
eliminated from the lungs and skin, thereby increasing 
respectively the humidity and the temperature. In 
this manner odors and bacteria are exhaled into the air, 
the combination producing the so-called " crowd air." 
Changes in air, due to combustion, are produced by 
heating and illuminating devices, such as the different 
sorts of gas and oil lamps and stoves. 

Old ideas of ventilation were based principally on the 
carbon dioxide content of the air, and were proposed by 
Pettenkoffer. Some of our text books to-day continue 
to publish methods of testing for the amount of carbon 
dioxide present and give as the upper limit .06 per cent 
as the standard for good health, and an increase over 
that of from four to ten per cent as the beginning of the 
danger point. 1 At each expiration the amount of oxygen 
exhaled is about 16 per cent of the expired air, the differ- 
ence between the 21 per cent of normal air and the 16 



per cent mentioned having been taken up by the haemo- 

See Reports of New York Commission on Ventilation, American Journal Public Health, February, 1914. 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 



205 



globin of the blood. Yet vitiation due to an increase of 
C0 2 and the decrease of oxygen has been proved of minor 
importance. 1 

Odors. — Odors which emanate from persons are the 
result of organic matter passed off in vapor from the 
lungs, mouth, skin, and cavities of the body. These 
odors, prevalent in " crowd air," are unpleasant and at 
times nauseating but, ac- 
cording to Winslow, have 
never proved injurious. 1 
They bear about the same 
relation to health, as far as 
danger is concerned, as 
sewer gases which were 
once believed to be so 
menacing. 

Temperature. — Tem- 
perature varies according 
to climate, altitude, seasons, 
etc., but the body heat 
remains about the same, 
98.4 degrees Fahrenheit. 
People adjust their diet, 
clothing, housing and exer- 
cise to these conditions. 
The temperature of a room 
should not exceed 70 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, prefer- 
ably 68 degrees. When a 
confined space is overheated 
it produces vaso-motor dis- 
turbances in the peripheral 
circulation of the skin of 
the occupant, which gives 
relief to the body heat radi- 
ation. As Haldane 2 and 
Winslow 1 state, too high 

a temperature is injurious to health if maintained, 
as it lowers efficiency, causes fatigue, lassitude, and 
anaemia, decreases metabolism, and produces a pre- 
disposition to acute and chronic diseases. These condi- 
tions are intensified when a high relative humidity 
is also present. Every schoolroom should have an ac- 
curate thermometer suspended about two and one-half 
feet from the floor in the middle of the room, and 
not near a heating device. The use of a thermostat 
for regulating heating appliances is ideal for main- 
taining a uniform artificial heat to comply with the 
above standards. 

Humidity. — Humidity is a great factor in the ques- 
tion of confined air and the subject of ventilation. An 



-Sling Psychrometer. 



excess humidity exerts the same influence upon the 
vaso-motor cutaneous system as excessive temperature. 
We are familiar with the experience of depressing hot 
days when the atmosphere is filled with moisture and our 
clothing feels " sticky." This condition illustrates how 
the internal heat, in its attempt to radiate from the 
body, brings into play the activity of the sweat glands 
of the skin, producing perspiration which, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, evaporates and reduces the body 
temperature. When the temperature of the atmosphere 
is raised, the amount of moisture contained in it increases 
and it may become saturated. In overheated rooms, 
when the air is exces- 
sively dry, we note how 
the moisture is extracted, 
particularly from our 
noses. Thus, in a short 
time, the mucous mem- 
branes become dry, and 
in the attempt to over- 
come this condition a 
congestion is experi- 
enced, which easily de- 
velops an infection and 
a cold in the head may 
be the result. 

The wet-bulb psychro- 
meter is an instrument 
every school should pos- 
sess for determining the 
temperature and relative 
humidity of the room. 
When the dry bulb ther- 
mometer is at 68 degrees, 
the wet bulb should 
register not more than 
66 degrees. Authorities 
have stated that the minimum amount of humidity 
should be 35 per cent and that the desirable per- 
centage of relative humidity should range between 40 
and 60 per cent. 

Increased temperature with a relatively high humidity 
is unhygienic. If maintained it causes depression and 
fatigue, decrease of resistance and metabolism, thereby 
predisposing its occupants to acute and chronic diseases. 
Moisture may be imparted to the air by exposing pans 
of water on radiators, or by a humidifier which exposes 
to the air, as it passes through the registers, a surface of 
cotton wicking communicating with the reservoir of 
water. 




Wet Bulb Psychrometer. 



1 See E. A. Winslow : Scientific Basis for Ventilation Standards. 

2 Haldane, Second Report of Departmental Committee on Humidity and Ventilation ii 



Cotton Weaving Sheds. 



2d6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Air Currents. — These are undoubtedly of the greatest 
importance in the matter of ventilation, as they keep 
the air in motion, thereby preventing its stagnation 
about our bodies. They play an important role in the 
peripheral circulation of the skin by causing evaporation 
of the moisture from its surface. Every one has experi- 
enced how refreshing it feels to leave a close or warm 
room for a breath of outdoor fresh air. It awakens our in- 
tellects by relieving and regulating the heat mechanism 
of our bodies by producing radiation and evaporation 
from the skin. In a room overheated by steam radiators, 
the air soon becomes scorched and is usually stagnant. 

When air currents are colder than the air that sur- 
rounds our body we experience a draft which is not felt 
in the open. In the mechanical or natural methods 
of ventilation the air movement when delivered three 
and one-half feet a second produces a draft. 
As the surface vessels contract, the blood 
is sent internally and radiation is reduced 
to a minimum. That drafts cause " colds " 
is a worn-out theory, although with persons 
who coddle themselves and live sedentary 
lives indoors, a draft may impinge upon a 
small area of the body and produce an 
effect upon the vascular system which, 
being unable to adjust itself, reacts and 
produces a congestion, as for example in 
the nose or muscles. School children should 
be well exercised^ taught the value of cold 
baths, fresh air, less clothing, than .usual 
and proper food. Under such conditions the vaso- 
motor system will react automatically and the danger 
of drafts will be obviated. To sum up the question, as 
Professor Lees tersely expresses it, " It is not a chemical 
but a physical, and not a pulmonary but a cutaneous 
problem." People who are always "catching colds " 
from fresh air or drafts do not require more clothing, 
or warmer houses, but a doctor to determine whether 
an infected tonsil, bad teeth, or other local infection is 
not responsible for the trouble. 

Bacteria. — Bacteria are found in larger numbers in 
ill- than in well-ventilated rooms, but the danger of 
infection from these is practically nil. 1 When persons 
are infected it usually results from coming into contact 
with the exhalations of a diseased person through 
coughing and sneezing. Moisture is disseminated in 
the air with disease germs. This is known as the 
" droplet " method of infection, and is by far the greatest 
factor in producing respiratory diseases, such as colds, 
measles, tonsillitis, etc., etc. 

Noxious irritating gases and smoke play an impor- 
tant role in the question of ventilation in industrial 




ANEMOMETER 



hygiene, but the small amount of chalk and floor dust 
of a schoolroom hardly plays any role as a factor in ill 
health. Ready methods of detection which are always 
at hand to determine when a confined space is not 
properly ventilated are afforded by the presence of odors, 
yawning, headache, and even nausea. External ventila- 
tion is important and should always be considered when 
selecting a site for a school building. There should be 
large grounds, bordering on streets or parks, at a sufficient 
distance from tall buildings, smoke stacks, and factories. 

To summarize, ventilation must comply with the 
following requirements : 

i. An interchange of pure air from without to dilute 
the products of respiration and vitiation. 

2. The maintenance of a proper temperature, of from 
65 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit. 

3. A supply of the proper percentage of 
humidity, which is considered to be be- 
tween 50 and 65 per cent. 

4. A gentle motion of the air is essential. 

5. Freedom from dust, odors, bacteria, 
and gases. 

6. Removal of the products of combus- 
tion. 

The most satisfactory method for the ven- 
tilation of schoolrooms is by means of open 
windows. The ideal method is by cross 
ventilation, which affords motion and inter- 
change of pure air. In some of our old 
text books yve find 'reference made to the 
use of window boards, window pane ventilators, and 
other devices to retail the air. Such methods are entirely 
inadequate. If the air from without is too cold, artificial 
heat delivered from within should counterbalance this 
discomfort, a principle always observed in open air 
schools and hospitals. The thermometer and thermostat 
to regulate temperature, the psychrometer to determine 
the humidity, and the anemometer to measure the air 
currents should be familiar instruments in every school. 
Every teacher should be taught to understand their 
use properly, as well as the principles of heating and 
ventilation. 

When mechanical heating and ventilating devices 
are installed, as explained in another chapter, the 
accepted standards must conform to certain require- 
ments. It is universally conceded that an adult requires 
from 1800 to 2400 cubic feet of fresh air hourly. The 
minimum amount of air entering the room for each 
person should be not less than 30 cubic feet per minute. 
The air enters the vent which has deflectors pointing 
upward. These are located eight feet from the floor and 



1 Winslow and Klieger. 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 



207 



measure approximately two feet square, with a slightly 
larger outlet near the floor. Such an opening is sufficient 
to take care of the modern school room of forty pupils, 
permitting a velocity of air entering as measured by the 
anemometer of from 350 to 400 feet every minute. The 
ducts to each room of forty pupils should be at least four 
square feet in cross section, so as to keep the velocity 
within them down below 400 feet per minute. To deter- 
mine air circulation an anemometer is moved over slowly 
the area of the vent, and is timed by a watch while the 
velocity of the air entering is read on the dial. The 
determination is finally made by multiplying the reading 
by the number of square feet in the opening for sixty 
seconds. This should equal the quantity entering and 
be then divided by the number of pupils, giving the 
amount for each person. For example, three hundred 
feet times four feet, equals 'twelve hundred feet, divided 
by forty pupils equals thirty cubic feet per minute. 
High temperature, imperfect humidity, motionless air 
in rooms where the occupants are physically inactive 
are the factors which are responsible for vitiated atmo- 
sphere. This is a school problem of great importance 
and magnitude, for it is reasonable to presume that a 
child in such an atmosphere is dull and nervous and, 
in consequence, robbed of his power of concentration. 
Window ventilation is, after all, the easiest and best 
method of flushing a room with pure air, and is far 
superior to any mechanical heating or ventilating con- 
trivance which supplies " canned air." The New York 
Health Department after careful investigation found that 
in classrooms with closed windows and ventilated with 
mechanical methods, children were more subject to 
respiratory diseases than were children in classrooms 
kept at the same or lower temperature and ventilated 
wholly by open windows. 1 

Dust. — Dust as a factor in aerial infections in school- 
rooms is practically nil, as has been proven by experi- 
ments. Probably the only pathogenic organisms likely 
to be transmitted are pus cocci and tuberculosis. Most 
of the communicable diseases are transmitted, as already 
stated, by infected persons, carriers, and convalescents, 
whose exhalations from coughing and sneezing spray 
into a small zone about their bodies small droplets 
carrying disease organisms which, when inhaled by 
another, produce disease in him or her. It may be 
relied upon that this is the usual course of infection and 
by direct contact, as from a common drinking cup, and 
not from chalkdust or dirty floors. 

In this age of hardwood floors or battleship linoleum 
coverings, school floors can easily be kept clean by 
pneumatic sweepers, oil mops or brush brooms. When 
the latter is used, a small amount of sawdust, previously 



moistened and sprinkled over the floor area, will elimi- 
nate the dust hazard. Here may be given an instance 
of the benefit of the filtering of large volumes of air 
introduced into a building when mechanical ventila- 
tion is installed. The air is drawn into and through a 
system of cotton bags about thirty feet in length in which 
the dirt and dust are retained. About a peck a month 
is thus collected and consists principally of organic 
and inorganic matter found in all street dust. 

Heating. — While it is true that a proper heating and 
ventilating system, installed by a scientific engineer, 
is capable of delivering any temperature, humidity, air 
volume, and movement desired, yet in practice, due 
to the ignorance of the custodians who are supposed to 
operate these contrivances, the final results have not 
been satisfactory. With such a record of failure the 
old tried-out system of open windows, combined with 
radiators, and known as the direct system, has been found 
to be the most satisfactory, even though it cannot be 
said to be perfect. 

The problems confronted by the engineer in arti- 
ficial heating and ventilation are many. First he must 
take into consideration the three hundred heat units 
and one and one-third ounces of water each pupil elimi- 
nates per hour. Then there is the question of the ex- 
change of fresh air, amounting to thirty cubic feet per 
minute, determined as necessary to relieve each pupil of 
the heat envelope which surrounds his body. The ques- 
tions of heat, drafts, odors, dust, humidification, air cool- 
ing and washing, as well as the economic factors of labor, 
fuel, water, fan power, installations, etc., are to be 
studied. It is the consensus of opinion that the most 
efficient and economical method of supplying and ex- 
hausting the air required by school buildings is by the 
use of fans. 

Kimball states : 

"With the vapor, atmospheric, modulating, and vacuum 
systems the use of the intermediate acting thermostat is most 
desirable, because it regulates the supply of steam to the radiators 
and the movements of the mixing dampers in a graduated manner 
in accordance with the demands for heating. Thus in mild 
weather but little steam is admitted to the radiators, and the 
position of the mixing damper is changed but slightly, with more 
steam being admitted to the radiators and a greater change in 
position of the mixing damper occurring as the outside tempera- 
ture becomes lower, the full quantity of steam being admitted to 
the radiator during extremely cold weather only. Such a method 
goes far towards eliminating the overheating of the room and 
discomfiture of the pupils sitting near the radiators. 2 

Heating is a question which goes hand in hand with 
ventilation and is discussed under Chapter XXV. The 
purpose of this statement is not to ascribe merit to one 
system or to another, for as yet, in the writer's opinion, 



1 New York Board of Health Report. 



2 Kimball : Heating and Ventilating of High Schools, Bruce Publishing Co., 1919. 



208 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the ideal heating and ventilating systems have been not 
perfected. 

Lighting. — Sunshine destroys bacteria. It adds cheer- 
fulness and comfort to the room and automatically 
encourages cleanliness. While it is true that natural 
light is not always uniform, on account of the changing 
seasons of the year, architects and hygienists are in 
accord in stating that the ratio of window space to 
floor surface should be at least one square foot of glass 
to five of floor space. The modern schoolroom, to be 



COQOQDQOQOQDVL7V/ 



ouoomooocpoco \Jp 



PUN 5HOWING rOR-K'ATION OF 

E,Y£, - STIU1N - PR.tVE.HTIV!,' DtSK^ AND 3UTS 

A5 APPUtD TO A TYPICAL CUSS 1U3DX ■ 




E.UVATION OF "L.YI-5TUIN - PJU,VE,NTIVt" DI,Sk_S & SUTS 



INVENTED BY JOHN J. DONOVAN - ARCHITECT 
01K.UND- - CAUFORJIIA 

Fig. 183. 

evenly lighted, should have a battery of windows, pref- 
erably on one side of the room, so arranged that the 
top of the window reaches within six inches of the 
ceiling, and, with a ratio of glass to floor space as above 
stated, adequate illumination is secured. East, south- 
east, West, and northern exposures afford the best light- 
ing effects. The seating capacity should be arranged 
so that the rays of light pass over the left shoulder of 
the pupil, thus overcoming cross shadows and conse- 
quent eye strain. To maintain uniform illumination 
other factors must also be considered. Tall buildings, 
trees, and smoke from chimneys intercept light. The 
same is true of dirty windows, as it is known that light 

1 Geyser : Loi 



passing through clean glass loses four per cent, and 
through soiled glass, from thirty to seventy per cent of 
its intensity. 1 

The chapter on classrooms contains a comprehensive 
discussion of the size of classrooms for the elementary, 
junior, and regular high schools. The proper ceiling 
heights are also shown diagrammatically for rooms of 
different widths in order to obtain the most favorable 
lighting for all the desk tops. From the data presented 
in that chapter it is evident that to establish arbitrarily 
sizes of classrooms, without taking into consideration 
other facts, is like prescribing a cure-all for special cases. 
For instance, besides knowing the number of pupils that 
are to occupy the room, it is necessary also to know the 
number of rows of desks that are to form the seating 
arrangement, also the grade of the school. School 
authorities should take into consideration the scientific 
facts now at hand for school building. For it is a physical 
and economic waste to make classrooms all of the same 
size. The following sizes are given for classrooms which 
will give the best conditions for lighting, hearing, and 
vision : 

A. Elementary schools, grades I to VI inclusive. Classrooms 
of five rows of desks (in the width) and of 40 pupils, width 20' o" , 
length 30' o", height 12' o". 

B. Elementary schools, grade I to VIII inclusive, classrooms 
of five rows of desks and 40 pupils, width 21' o", length 31' 6", 
height 13' o". 

C. Junior high schools, grades VII to IX inclusive, classrooms 
of five rows of desks and 35 pupils, width 22' o", length 30' o", 
height 13' o". 

D. Junior high schools for classrooms of six rows and 36 
pupils, width 25' o", length 27' o", height 14' o". 

E. High schools, classrooms of five rows and 30 pupils, width 
22' o", length 27' o", height 13' o". 

F. High schools, classrooms of six rows and 30 pupils, width 
25' o", length 25' o", height 14' o". 

(The above measurements do not include space for wardrobes.) 

The walls of the schoolroom should receive careful 
attention, not only for the purpose of adding cheerful- 
ness to the room where the acquisition of knowledge 
and ideals is to be encouraged, but also to make the atmos- 
phere healthful and restful and to add warmth and light 
to the surroundings. The tints that harmonize with 
most woods are the soft tones of buff, yellow, and 
orange, which improve the lighting effects without 
causing glare and the resultant eye strain. The color 
of the ceilings should usually be of a lighter tint, which 
will reflect the greatest amount of soft light. On bright 
days the use of shades becomes necessary to eliminate 
the glare. The best shades are Venetian blinds or the 
roller translucent shades of an ecru color. 

Desks. — How very little attention is given to the 
place where the growing child is confined for several 

i Light. 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 



209 



hours each day ! It is a matter that should concern all 
interested in health and education, if they wish to pre- 
vent eye strain and postural defects. The question 
of first importance is to provide adjustable desks, so 
that the desk and seat fit the child, and not attempt the 
opposite. At each school term the duty of the teacher 
should be to assign each pupil to a perfectly adjusted seat 
and desk. Hygienic requirements for a proper adjustable 
desk are as follows : the top of the desk should be on an 
incline of not more than fifteen degrees and about fifteen 




, i= 



PLAN 5HOWING FORJUTION Of 

"LYL-STRJUN- PUVLNTIVf,' AOVA5U, CHAIL DISKS 

AS APPLIED TO 1 TVPIGAL CUSS LCOA. 




ELEVATION Of "E,YE,-STJLA1N - ?R.£,V£,NTIVE," AOVA&LL CHAIL DLSICS 



The seat when adjusted to the child forms a right angle 
of the thigh with the legs, the pelvis resting slightly 
backward in a concave seat to keep the pupil from 
sliding forward while the feet are being wholly supported 
on the floor. To overcome fatigue the seat should have, 
a back reaching below the child's shoulder blades and 
arranged to support the small of the back. The author 
of this book has invented an adjustable rhomboidal 
form of desk with certain original features which enables 




PLAN SHOWING FORMATION OF 

'EYE • .STRAIN • PREVENTIVE" DESK.S AND SEATS 

AS APPLIED TO A TYPLCAL CLASS ROOM 




ELEVATION OF "EYE- STRAIN • PREVENTIVE" DESK.S 6 SEATS 



Fig. 184. 

inches from the eye. This allows sufficient slope for a 
proper posture for vertical writing and permits the eye 
to fall nearly perpendicularly upon the printed page. 
The light should be over the left shoulder, as has been 
already stated. Desk tops should be free from unnecessary 
gloss and should overhang the front of the seat from 
one to two inches. The height of the desk should be 
sufficient to allow the forearm to rest comfortably without 
much resting on the elbows, so that the scholar will not 
be required to bend down to write. When the desk 
is too high, the arm is raised, tending to produce a lateral 
curvature of the spine known as scoliosis. When the 
desk is too low the shoulders are stooped. The distance 
between the back of the seat and the edge of the desk 
should permit sufficient room not to press the abdomen. 



the pupils to sit at a pronounced angle removed from the 
glare of the window lighting and, at the same time, 
permits a more direct view of the teacher and obviates 
the turning of the pupil's head or the change of his 
position. 

Plumbing. — In our city schools, where running 
water and sewerage facilities are available, this subject 
should be given attention. It is a maxim that the best 
is the cheapest. The so-called sanitary plumbing is 
controlled and inspected by the authorities as to drain- 
age, traps, vents, etc., but the placing of the fixtures, 
whether they be installed in the basement or on the 
different floors, is a matter which should be given some 
consideration. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The better method is to distribute the toilets on the 
different "floors, especially if the building is of more 
than two 1 stories. The division should in general be 
according to the following order, five-eighths of the total 
number on the ground floor, and the remaining three- 
eighths distributed on the floors above. The ground 
floor toilet rooms should be adjacent to the playrooms 
and directly accessible to the play yards. It is obvious 
that the greater number of toilets should be installed 
on the ground floor, as the pupils in the elementary 
schools are marched to the ground floor at the end of 
each session, and it is at this time that the greatest 
necessity for toilet service is reached. It is just as 
obvious that pupils should not be compelled to walk 




Protected Type of Drinking Fountain 



down and up two or three flights of stairs during class 
hours in order to use the toilet rooms. Therefore each 
floor should have its toilet rooms for boys and for girls. 

Toilet rooms should be of hard plaster or tiled walls, 
and the floors made of asphalt, tile, terrazza, or some 
other impervious material. The important necessity 
in arranging toilet rooms is to have outside screened 
window ventilation and to keep them dry and clean. 
They too should be built of impervious materials. The 
number of toilets required by girls should be in the 
proportion of one for every twenty, while for boys one 
. in twenty-five is all that is required. 1 The danger of 
infection from toilet seats in schools is practically nil, 
but this fact should not be made an excuse for not clean- 
ing them frequently. There are many so-called disinfec- 
tants on the market, which claim to destroy all kinds 
of germs, but their only merit is their deodorizing power. 

All toilet rooms should be mechanically ventilated by 
allowing fresh air to enter through the open windows 
and the foul air to be removed through a raised vent 
in back of the water closet fixture. The back vent has 
an area of about eleven square inches and protrudes 



into the utility chamber back of the fixtures. Con- 
nected with the chamber there is usually an under- 
ground duct leading to a suction fan which draws the 
air from the toilet rooms and expels it into the open air 
above the roof. This ventilation is also extended to 
the urinals by connecting 3" vent pipe to the urinal waste 
just above the trap and projecting it 6" above the floor 
of the utility chamber. This chamber is likewise con- 
nected to the exhaust fan. By 'this means of exhaust 
ventilation the movement of the air of the toilet room is 
always downwards and through the fixtures. The sys- 
tem is fully illustrated in the chapter on plumbing. It 
should be noted, however, that very often custodians 
of schools will shut down the fans in order to save a 
slight expense in their operation. This should 
not be tolerated, as it endangers health merely 
for a small saving in money. 

In the boys' toilet room upright urinals, con- 
cave, of vitreous china, with the drain at the 
floor and having an automatic flush, are the most 
sanitary. The number installed should be one 
for each twenty-five boys. The urinals should 
be scrubbed daily with brushes and can be de- 
odorized with a solution of chlorinated lime or of 
creolin, in the proportion of four ounces of the 
chemical to a gallon of water. 

The number of lavatories should be about one 
to every fifty pupils. They should be equipped 
with a water-pressure closing valve. This oper- 
ates by pressing downward a lever, and as the 
flow of water can be regulated to run from ten seconds 
to a longer period it enables the child to cleanse his 
hands without having to touch the metal a second time. 
When the old roller towel and the common drinking 
cup, the two evils responsible for most disease dissemi- 
nation among school children, were legally condemned in 
most states, it became necessary to devise sanitary 
substitutes. Even the first sanitary drinking fountain 
had to undergo changes on account of epidemics being 
traced to its faulty construction. In the first designs 
that were invented, the nozzles were not protected, and 
the consumer touched his lips to the same, thereby 
making possible the infection of the water supply, as 
borne out by investigations recently conducted at the 
University of Minnesota. 2 Figure No. 186 shows the 
protected type of drinking fountain nozzle. The water 
flows in the form of an arc from which the consumer 
drinks without contaminating it. This type of drinking 
fountain illustrates the most sanitary drinking fixture 
on the market. 

The number of drinking fountains should be appor- 
tioned about as follows : for schools of more than five 



1 Rules: Minnesota Department of Education, School Buildings, 19 li 



2 U. S. Public Health Reports. 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 



hundred pupils there should be placed in the playrooms 
and play yards one for about every seventy pupils, and, 
for schools of less than five hundred pupils, the ratio 
should be materially increased. In addition to those 
for the playrooms and play yards there should be two 
separate fountains of single jets placed in the corridors 
of each floor of the building. This will be more conven- 
ient and save time on the part of the pupils and will 
benefit the discipline of the school. It is a good plan to 
have these isolated fountains connected to wet fire 
standpipes as indicators of the conditions of these lines 
for immediate service. 




originally built for this purpose has advantages over 
roof classrooms, on account of the provision afforded 
against inclement weather. 

The temperature of these rooms should never be per- 
mitted to rise above fifty degrees Fahrenheit, provided 
the outdoor temperature is below this. Much lower 
temperature can be tolerated by children, provided winds 
are controlled by partially closing them out, as occasion 
demands. Steam radiators offer the ideal method of 
heating when the temperature is very low. At the 
McCormick Open Air School Esquimaux suits and 



i Drinking from Unprotected Type of 
Drinking Fountain. 




- Boy Drinking from a Protected Type of 
Drinking "Fountain. 



Open-air Schools. — Since the open-air school move- 
ment was first started at Providence, R. I., in 1908, 
and the successful promotion and standardization of 
these methods by the McCormick Memorial Fund at 
Chicago, it has progressed beyond the realm of the 
faddist. These schools have been organized all over 
the country, irrespective of climatic conditions. The 
aim of the open-air school was primarily to educate, in 
the fresh air, children who were weak or diseased. Thus 
cases of bone and pulmonary tuberculosis, glandular 
enlargements, cardiac diseases, debilitated and anaemic, 
as well as underfed, children were treated. Every new 
schoolhouse should have at least one room built especially 
for an open-air class. This classroom should be located 
so as to possess a southern and an eastern exposure and 
should be provided with casement windows which admit 
the maximum amount of fresh air and sunshine. A room 



sleeping-'bags form a part of each child's equipment 
for keeping warm. The next factor in the success- 
ful care of this class of children is to provide in an 
adjoining room facilities for preparing nourishment. 
Such a room may serve also as a laboratory for do- 
mestic science classes, and may develop into an im- 
portant feature for the promotion of the " penny 
lunch " movement which is gaining advocates in our 
cities. 



Lunches can be provided here as well as the ten and 
three o'clock extra feedings. The classroom may be 
used as a rest room at the period between eleven and 
twelve by providing the necessary folding cots and 
blankets. In many of our larger cities a special room 
is set aside for this purpose. As fatigue must be over- 
come, the rest period is essential for success. The 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




staff consists of a teacher, school nurse, maid, and the 
visiting doctor. Not more than twenty-five pupils 
should be entered in each class. The teacher should 
be thoroughly in sympathy with the movement and 
possess a special knowledge of hygiene and physical 
education. The resident nurse records daily tem- 
perature, takes measurements and weight, and inspects 
for disease, cleanliness, and proper clothing. She also 
visits the homes of her pupils, instructs the parents, 
follows up cases and recommends for operations and 
treatment. The medical inspector makes periodical 
physical examinations, recommends and informs parents 
of the necessity of remedying defective teeth, enlarged 
tonsils, and adenoids. The benefits of the open-air 
school from an educational standpoint are that these 
children progress more rapidly and their attendance and 
deportment are better. The physical results are that 
their nutrition and weight improves, the haemoglobin 
scale advances, arrested cases of tuberculosis have no 
relapses, and the nervous and cardiac cases improve 
markedly. Such a record of success should make it 



compulsory for each school to possess one or more of 
these open-air classrooms. 

Figure 191 shows an economical arrangement for an 
open-air suite which is applicable to any school building. 
This is arranged so that two classes may be maintained 
— one studying while the other is reclining, and alter- 
nating in the use of the room. The wardrobe off room A 
is for girls, with its shower and toilet facilities and a 
storage space for lockers containing the sleeping bags 
and clothing. Similarly the wardrobe off room B is 
for the boys. It should be noted that such a plan, if 
adopted, should be placed on the top floor of the build- 
ing. This scheme will provide for the two classes without 
any great additional cost over that of two regular class- 
rooms. 

Health and Safety Welfare. — The necessity of safe- 
guarding the health and well-being of our children should 
be indelibly impressed upon the minds of the public 
servants of the people. If every teacher and every 
custodian of our schools had had a course in school 
and child hygiene they would automatically develop 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 




Fig. 190. - 



into custodians of the public health. We desire that our 
children shall learn the fundamental laws of personal 
health and practice them while in school, for it is at this 
impressionable age that their ideas become deeply 
ingrained, and they will not later tolerate inadequate 
facilities in their homes or workshops. 

Every teacher should be a diagnostician of health. 
When a child deviates from the normal he should become 
a suspect of disease. With such a knowledge, how easy 
it is to suppress an epidemic by sending a suspected 
child home before it has had an opportunity to infect 
others. It should be the teacher's duty to observe 
whether a child is becoming blind for want of proper 
glasses or deaf on account of adenoids or enlarged 
tonsils. Many a defect taken in time has been thus 
remedied easily, and cases of communicable disease 
discovered and isolated. The employment of a school 
doctor, dentist, and nurse is an economic asset to every 
school community. When the state by authority is 



given the right to compel attendance at school, it also 
has the added duty and responsibility of insisting that 
no harm shall come to those who go there. By the 
assumption of this responsibility practical health super- 
vision will have been accomplished. 

In Chapter I, " Sites and Grounds," it is pointed out 
that the intermediate or junior high school should be 
the center of an area containing a number of elementary 
schools. Geographically this is the proper place to 
locate the general school clinic, as shown in figure 192. 
For it would then serve the maximum number of children 
most conveniently. The central clinics should care for 
the medical needs of about fifteen or eighteen schools 
of a total enrollment of about nine to twelve thousand 
pupils. Accordingly, in a city of two hundred thousand 
population and having a school enrollment of about 
thirty thousand, there should be two or three such 
clinics. 



2l6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 193. — University of California's Dental Clinic. 



The purpose of the school clinic is to make physical 
examination of the school children of the district, to 
protect the healthy from the unhealthy, thereby pre- 
venting communicable diseases, to discover eye strain, 
deafness, defective teeth, diseased tonsils, and adenoids, 
and to recommend to the parents measures for their 
relief. Often by such examination incipient tuberculosis, 
anaemia, malnutrition and cardiac cases, which have been 
overlooked by the parents or the family physician, are 
noticed, and by proper treatment and open-air schools 
a future citizen is saved for the state. Mental defec- 
tives and stammerers also are thus located and assigned 
to special classes. 

All children after convalescing from an infectious 
disease, before being allowed to return to school, could 
be " cleared " or granted permits from the clinic. By 
cooperating with the Board of Health communicable 
diseases would be reported and epidemics controlled or 
prevented. It is surprising how many cases of myopia, 
squint, and infectious eye diseases are discovered upon 
periodical medical examinations-. Such children are 



usually behind in their class work and would suffer im- 
paired vision or lose it for want of glasses and proper 
treatment. The same is true of discharging ears, leading 
to deafness, enlarged glands, defective mouths and 
speech, and focal infections, the results of diseased teeth, 
tonsils, and adenoids. Many of our large cities have 
free dental clinics for school children, given by philan- 
thropists, notably the Forsyth at Boston, Massachu- 
setts. 

The plan for a model public school clinic, as shown 
above, may be arranged to suit the conditions of the 
school site. It may be annexed to the main building 
or be located on the ground floor or in a special build- 
ing. The pupil enters at one end of the clinic and 
applies at the office for assignment, and then waits 
his or her turn in the waiting room. The records of 
all the pupils of the districts are kept in the office; a 
spot map hangs on the wall showing the various squares 
of the city, with colored pins inserted to indicate such 
prevalent contagious diseases as are daily reported 
by the health officer. The nurses' room off the corridor 



THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS 



217 



is for their private use. Here the district school and 
duty nurse reports and receives orders. Adjoining is a 
room where nurses may conduct special examinations 
or use for any other purpose deemed advisable. The 
eye clinic, which is used for testing the hearing as well 
as the eyes, is arranged with floor markings of one to 
twenty feet from the Snellen test card, affording a rapid 
and accurate means of recording vision. The normal 
vision, being twenty feet from the card, reads 2o/2oths, 
while a child standing on the ten-foot mark, and able 
to see clearly the lines of letters, would have io/2oths, 
or half vision. 

For hearing, the examiner may use the same floor scale. 
The child stands twenty feet away, one ear turned 

directly toward the examiner, the other ear having been of modern health and education, 
stopped up so as to admit no sound. The examiner 
whispers in an audible tone of voice. If the child hears 
at this distance of twenty feet, his hearing is normal 
and is recorded as 2o/2oths. If unable to hear what is 
said, he moves nearer until able to distinguish the words 
spoken,, and his hearing is recorded at that distance, 
as, for example, i6/2oths. A dark room for special eye 
cases is off the clinic. The testing rooms may be used 
also for vaccinations, examining for vermin, prevalent 
infectious diseases, or as a small classroom for hygiene 
talks and conferences. 

No school clinic is complete without a dental depart- 
ment for the examination and care of the teeth. Accord- 
ing to Gulick and Ayers from 80 per cent to 96 per cent 
of school children require dental attention. 1 The Uni- 
versity of California installed two chairs with complete 
outfits, costing about $1600, and engaged two full time 
dental surgeons who keep the hours completely filled 
during visiting periods. 2 

1 Gulick and Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools. 2 Health Insurance, University of California, by Robert T. Legge, M.D, 



The school doctor has his private room for special 
examinations and conferences with parents, also an op- 
erating room with the special rooms necessary for high- 
class work, such as a laboratory, and anesthesia rooms 
adjoining it. The operating room is for the purpose 
of administrating first aids, for vaccination dressings, 
and for tonsil and adenoid operations. A rest room 
containing a few beds for emergency cases, waiting 
to be sent home for the family physician to attend, or 
for cases of fainting or minor injuries, as well as for 
tonsil operation patients, is also provided. The modern 
school built to-day must be planned to remain modern 
to-morrow, as we all agree that grandfather's school was 
never built to furnish the curriculum and appurtenances 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

See Reports of the New York Commission on Ventila- 
tion; American Journal Public Health, February, 



II. 
III. 



IV. 



V. 



VIII. 

IX. 
X. 
XI. 



E. A. Winslow: Scientific Basis for Ventilation Standards. 

Haldane : Second Report of Departmental Committee 
on Humidity and Ventilation in Cotton Weaving 
Sheds. 

Winslow and Klieger: American Public Health Journal, 
1912. 

Canned Air versus Fresh Air. Bulletin New York Depart- 
ment of Health, March 9, 1918. 
VI. Kimball : Heating and Ventilating of High Schools. 
VII. Geyser: Loss of Light. 

Rules : Minnesota Department of Education, School 
Buildings, 1918. 

United States Public Health Reports, Drinking Fountains. 

Gulick and Ayers : Medical Inspection of Schools. 

Robert T. Legge : Students' Health and Insurance at the 
University of California. 



CHAPTER X 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

By Jay B. Nash, A.B., Assistant State Supervisor of Physical Education, California 

Introduction. Need of Physical Education. History of Physical Education. Rise of the Playground Movement. New Era in 
Physical Education, 1914-1918. State Laws. Definition and Aims of Physical Education. Periods of Leadership and Instruction 
in Physical Education. Phases of Physical Education. Physical Education in the Curriculum. The Physical Education Plant. 
The Indoor Gymnasium. Room for Corrective Gymnastics. Game Room. Swimming-Pools. Outdoor or Semi-outdoor Gymnasium. 
The Play Yard. Elementary School. Intermediate School. High School. 

Introduction. Need of Physical Education. — A "At military camps throughout the country mental 
number of circumstances have brought out in the past alertness, accuracy in thinking and acting, clearness 
decade the great need for physical education in our in enunciation, sureness and ease of carriage and bear- 
public schools. Perhaps the greatest revelation was due ing must be insisted upon for two reasons — that success 
to the examinations of men for entrance into the army may be asserted as nearly as human effort can guarantee 
in our country, as well as in all other countries engaged in it with the material and means at hand, and that price- 
the World War of 1914-1918. The following statistics less human lives may not be criminally sacrificed. Only 
give the number of men rejected for service in the army by the possession of the qualities referred to does one 
in one large section of the United States. £~ become a natural leader." x 

m . „ , . , Another cause for the rise in the physical education 

Total called 3,082,946 t • - 

Total examined by local boards 2,510,706 movement has been the rapid development in the use 

Total rejected 730,756 of machinery for all types of work in city and country, 

Per cent of those rejected after examination 29.11 together with the movement toward the concentration 

Add 5.8 per cent of number sent rejected at f our population in large cities. The physical exercise 

33-19 in connection with our daily work has become less and 

Eugene Lyman Fisk, Medical Director of the Life less and the strain which has been put upon the workers 

Extension Institute, New York City, writing in the by speeded up production has become greater and greater. 

American Medical Association Journal for February Use of the small muscles rather than the big muscles in 

2, 1 91 8, says : " The most superficial analysis shows this finer type of work necessitated by greater coordina- 

very clearly that at least sixty per cent of these rejected tion has been a contributory cause. The results are 

men owe their impairments either to ignorance or beginning to show in the effect upon the health and 

neglect. The man who has a remediable defect and efficiency of our people. The need for vigorous physical 

hides behind it is really a slacker, although he may activity is being felt by all, and the feeling is growing 

not be conscious of it. Forty per cent of the men be- that these activities must be guided through the school 

tween the ages of 21 and 31 are physically unfit. It years of a child in order that proper health habits may 

must be remembered that the majority of these men be established. 

were not declined because of surgical defects. They A concrete example of the strain which modern 

need physical training and hygiene and proper diet." civilization is placing upon the individual is shown in 

Another evidence of the need for physical education the heavy increase in nervous diseases in the past decade, 

is brought out by Provost Marshal General Crowder, This has been accompanied by a very decided decrease 

who says : " Perhaps the most glaring fault noted in in the number of contagious diseases. This seems to 

aspirants to the Officers' Reserve Corps and one that be an indication that although we are mastering the 

might be corrected by proper attention in our high diseases that are spread by infection, we are failing to 

schools, preparatory schools and colleges, might be cope with those which are caused by high nervous strain, 

characterized by the general word ' Slouchiness ' . . . It would probably be impossible for any one cause to 

1 Extracts from letter written by the Adjutant General's office, Washington, August 28th, 1917. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



219 



be assigned for this increase in nervous diseases, but it 
seems reasonable to assume that the high strain of 
working long hours indoors under nerve-racking condi- 
tions, together with the absence of vigorous physical 
exercise in the open air and proper rest for recuperation, 
is responsible for part of this situation. 

A general wave of opinion has swept the country in 
favor of a thoroughgoing system of physical education 
for the boys and girls of the elementary and high schools- 

History of Physical Education. — Physical education 
in one of its many forms has been evident in the educa- 
tional system of all the leading peoples. In England 
it has largely taken the form of a vigorous play and 
game life among the children, and this has also been 
evident in the activities of the adults. The majority 
of the games which children play, and especially those 
which they continue to use through life, are games 
which have come to us from our Anglo-Saxon ancestors, 
for instance, the games of tennis, handball, golf, foot- 
ball, soccer, lacrosse, cricket. Even baseball in an 
early form has come down to us through England. 
Their motto of " Sport for sport's sake " has become 
axiomatic the world over. 

The Swedish system of physical education, perhaps 
the most elaborately worked out system by which large 
numbers can be handled in limited space, is to-day the 
basis of a great deal of our established work. 

The German system of physical education brings us 
to an entirely new viewpoint in the work. Their sys- 
tem was largely stimulated by the conditions which 
were brought out in the Franco-Prussian War. The ob- 
ject of their work was to develop physical stamina in 
the young men of the Empire that they might be 
better able to serve the Fatherland. The work turned 
rapidly to gymnastics, best illustrated by the work of 
the Turnve reins. Their work was largely individual, 
and with the exception of broadswording, dueling and 
certain types of combative exercises, there was little 
of the social element manifest. 

In America as early as 182 1 an outdoor gymnasium 
was established in Salem, Mass. In 1825 Harvard, 
Yale, Amherst, Williams, and Brown had established 
gymnasium courses. After this, for a number of 
decades, the enthusiasm for physical education died 
down. The next wave of enthusiasm was manifest 
during the decade following the Civil War. It is said 
that a school which had for a phase of its activity play 
and physical education was started in the old First 
Church of Boston in 1866, and two years later when the 
church moved to its new home at Copley Square an out- 
door playground was added near by. 

Rise of the Playground Movement. - Little progress, 
however, was made during that decade or the next. The 



revival of the interest has been closely associated with 
the rise of -the playground movement, which may 
properly be dated from 1890. During that year a num- 
ber of small playgrounds were opened and in New York 
$25,000 was set aside for playgrounds. Many associa- 
tions were taking up the subject of playgrounds, largely 
from the standpoint of charity, as the play movement was 
supposed to benefit only the children who were living 
under slum conditions. The names of Jacob A. Riis, 
Theodore Roosevelt, and Joseph Lee were closely asso- 
ciated with the work at this time. 

With the beginning of the twentieth century new 
developments took place rapidly. Dr. Luther H. Gulick 
organized the Public School Athletic League, and 
leagues of this type were established in many cities. 
Playground and recreation associations were formed 
distinct from charitable organizations. Among the 
notable private organizations should be mentioned the 
one of Pittsburgh, Pa., which for many years was directed 
by Geo. E. Johnson. 

The movement rapidly spread westward and began 
gradually to take a new form. The private associations 
gave way to municipal control, and the movement was 
taken over by one or another of the various city depart- 
ments. As a rule, it was a department of the park 
commission, as- the' park commissions already had con- 
trol of large areas of open land throughout the cities. 

This phase of the movement lasted only a few years, 
as the fast growing work became too complicated for a 
department of the park commission. The playground 
commissions were soon organized as a part of the munic- 
ipal government, and practically every city in America 
to-day has in one form or another a playground or recrea- 
tion commission which conducts play for children after 
school and during vacations. ' 

New Era in Physical Education of 1914-1918. — With 
the rise of the present physical education movement, 
which may be dated from the war of 1914-1918, the 
next logical step which should be taken is actually being 
taken, namely, all types of physical education are being 
taken over by our educational system and made com- 
pulsory by our public schools. It was necessary to 
show the community the value of this work exactly as 
the early church schools showed the community the value 
of education, but now that the community is convinced 
of its value the responsibility of the work is properly 
being assumed by the public schools. There are a 
number of reasons why this must be so. 1. The school 
has all the children. Upon a voluntary basis of educa- 
tion or physical education those who are the most pro- 
gressive and need it the least will take advantage of the 
opportunities. The place where the need is greatest 
is not reached when, the work is on a voluntary basis. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



2. The school should have the ground and other facilities 
necessary for physical education. If the physical 
activities for the children are centered about the school, 
it will be unnecessary for a municipality to duplicate 
ground and equipment. The step that has been taken 
by a large number of the states in making this work a 
phase of the school work is the logical step. 

This does not mean that the playground and recrea- 
tion associations or commissions have completed their 
work. The emphasis of their work will be merely shifted 
from that of the children of the community to the adults of 
the community, which is a very large and complicated field. 

State Laws. — Extracts from a number of State laws 
on this subject are here given : 

California State Law 
Senate Bill No. 599 

Chapter 668 
An act to provide for the organization and supervision of courses 
in physical education in the elementary, secondary and normal 
schools of the state, and appropriating ten thousand dollars 
therefor. 

(Approved May 26, 1917.) 

"The people of the State of California do enact as 
follows : 

" Section 1. The board of education of each county, 
city and county, and city, whose duty it is to prescribe 
the course of study for the elementary schools of such 
county, city and county, or city, shall prescribe suitable 
courses of physical education in accordance with the 
provisions of this act for all pupils enrolled in the day 
elementary school except pupils who may be excused from 
such training on account of physical disability ; and 
the high school board of each high school district shall 
prescribe suitable courses of physical education in 
accordance with the provision of this act for all pupils 
regularly enrolled in the day high schools of such district, 
except pupils regularly enrolled in high school cadet 
companies and pupils who may be excused from such 
courses on account of physical disability. 

" Section 2. The aims and purposes of the courses of 
physical education established under the provisions 
of this act shall be as follows : (1) To develop organic 
vigor, provide neuro-muscular training, promote bodily 
and mental poise, correct postural defects, secure the 
more advanced forms of coordination, strength and 
endurance, and to promote such desirable moral and 
social qualities as appreciation of the value of cooperation, 
self-subordination and obedience to authority, and 
higher ideals, courage and wholesome interest in truly 
recreational activities ; (2) to promote a hygienic school 
and home life, secure scientific supervision of the sanita- 
tion of school buildings, playgrounds and athletic fields, 
and the equipment thereof. 



" Section 3. It shall be the duty of the superintendent 
of schools of every county, city and county, or city and 
of every board of education, board of school trustees, 
or high school board, to enforce the courses of physical 
education prescribed by the proper authority, and to 
require that such physical education be given in the 
schools under their jurisdiction or control. All pupils 
enrolled in the elementary schools, except pupils excused 
therefrom in accordance with the provisions of this 
act, shall be required to attend upon such courses of 
physical education during periods which shall average 
twenty minutes in each school day, and all pupils en- 
rolled in the secondary schools, except pupils excused 
therefrom in accordance with the provisions of this 
act, shall be required to attend upon such courses of 
physical education for at least two hours each week 
that school is in session. . . ." 

State Law of New York 

Chapter 567 
AN ACT to amend the education law, in relation to courses of 
instruction in physical training and discipline in the schools of 
the state. 

Article 2 6- A 
Discipline and Physical Training. 

" After the first day of September, nineteen hundred 
and sixteen, all male and female pupils above the age 
of eight years in all elementary schools shall receive 
as part of the prescribed courses of instruction therein 
such physical training as the regents after conference 
with the military training commission may determine, 
during periods which shall average at least twenty 
minutes in each school day. 

" Similar courses of instruction shall be prescribed and 
maintained in private schools in the state, and all pupils 
in such schools over eight years of age shall attend upon 
such courses ; and if such courses are not so established 
and maintained in any private school, attendance upon 
instruction in such school shall not be deemed substan- 
tially equivalent to instruction given to children of like 
ages in the public school or schools of the city or district 
in which the child resides." 

State Aid for Teachers Employed. — "The commis- 
sioner of education, in the annual apportionment of 
state school moneys, shall apportion therefrom to each 
city and school district on account of courses of instruc- 
tion as provided in this article, established and main- 
tained in the schools of such city or district during the 
school year or any part thereof, a sum equal to one-half 
of the salary paid to each teacher on account of instruc- 
tion given in such courses, but the entire amount appor- 
tioned on account of a single teacher during a school 
year shall not exceed six hundred dollars." 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



Many other states have enacted laws, and national 
legislation will soon follow. 

Definition and Aims of Physical Education. — 
" Physical education is that phase of education con- 
cerned with the functions of big muscle activities and 
related factors which control the growth and develop- 
ment of the child and the physical efficiency of the 
adult. Related factors mean behavior or habits in- 
fluencing diet, sleep, rest, oxidation, elimination, tem- 
perature regulation, mental moods, etc. In order that 
development may be secured there must be protection 
from handicapping growth divergencies, devitalizing 
drains, infection, poisons, etc. And in the educational 
process the individual must come finally to control his 
own efficiency. Therefore, physical education is inter- 
preted to cover (i) the facilities and organizations 
necessary for physical training activities, activity being 
the only constructive factor in developing power ; (2) the 
control of growth handicaps, the preventive and correc- 
tive factor in growth and development; and (3) the 
teaching of efficient living, the self-directing factor, i.e., 
the gradual establishment, largely indirectly, but finally 
directly, of an ideal of self-engineering for efficient living. 

" The special aims of physical education are deter- 
mined primarily by the functional or developmental 
effects of the activities with which physical education 
is concerned. Physical training activities are (1) the 
only activities that develop the latent organic powers, 
or the vitality and the nervous capacity to stand the 
wear and tear of strenuous living; (2) the only ac- 
tivities that develop the fundamental psychomotor 
strengths and skills and mental responses ; and (3) the 
activities that most profoundly exercise the deeper in- 
stincts and emotions which lie at the foundation of 
character. The leadership of these activities offers 
great opportunity for influence in character training 
and in the development of many fundamental phases 
of adjustment for citizenship. These are the primary 
aims in physical education. They are related to other 
phases of education as the foundation to the super- 
structure." * 

Periods of Leadership and Instruction in Physical 
Education. Classification of Periods. (Under School 
Year Conditions.) 

a. Supervised Play period. (Synonyms : directed 
play period ; athletic period ; " recreation " period.) 

b. Instructional period. 

c. Between-class relief period. 

d. Special corrective period. 

Relationships between the Periods. — a. These periods 
are all physical training periods ; all are exercise periods ; 
all are periods requiring leadership. They are designed 

1 California State Manual on Physical 



to meet the physical needs of children under the condi- 
tions and demands of the modern school organization. 
The distinctions and relationships between the periods 
are not intended to be arbitrary or inflexible. Condi- 
tions may alter these relationships and distinctions. In 
general, the descriptions below will hold true. 

The Supervised Play Period. {Athletic period.) — 
This period represents the broader organization of 
physical training activities necessary for the development 
of organic power and nervous vigor, and for character 
training, but the time consumed bulks so large that it 
is impossible usually to organize it entirely within the 
regular school hours. It covers at least a part of the 
time before school, during recess, after school, Satur- 
days and holidays. Therefore this period represents 
an extension of the educational influences of the school 
into the outdoor play life of the child; his " free time." 
It is the period for the broadest leadership, coaching and 
training in the highest sense, and the systematic-inci- 
dental instruction in right living. The school should 
organize enough of this " free " time to establish play 
habits and ideals which will function in the play life 
away from the school's organizing influence. Present- 
day social conditions influencing child life and education 
demand that the school shall organize this period in 
self-defense, because : 

a. The influences of the unsupervised play life of the 
child are balking the school and society in their edu- 
cational efforts. 

b. The unsupervised play of children at home and in 
the home neighborhood under present-day social con- 
ditions is generally neither efficient from a physical 
training standpoint nor wholesome from a moral stand- 
point. Surveys show that time is wasted in loafing 
and fooling, and the activities drift into forms that are 
physically, morally, and socially detrimental. 

c. The difficulties in the organization of efficient 
play, due to the cramping and complex social condi- 
tions in cities and the isolation in the country, are be- 
yond the resources and organizing power of children; 
they must have help and direction. 

d. Parents as a rule do not understand the needs of 
children as to amount and variety of activity, and they 
do not possess, usually, the skill to organize the play 
activities even where they see these needs. 

The Instructional Period. — ■ (Do not call this the 
Physical Training Period and thus narrow the term; 
it is only one of the Physical Training periods.) This 
period is the backbone of the physical training pro- 
gram in the school. It comes within the regular school 
hours and is essentially a period for teaching and prac- 
tice, as physical training activities must be taught and 

Education, by Clark W. Hetherington. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



learned. In this period, the teacher takes the initia- 
tive and teaches those activities essential for develop- 
ment or for free participation in the supervised play 
period. The instruction should be scheduled and con- 
ducted, so far as the attendance and attitude of the 
students are concerned, like other school periods, but 
the instructional purpose should not make the period 
disagreeable. On the contrary, it should be charged 
with a purpose and enjoyment. There is no conflict 
between discipline and the spirit of play. 

To be successful the organization of the activities 
in this period must be progressive, both by age periods 
and by the skill of groups of individuals. This requires 
a differentiation of the instructional period into several 
periods according to grades, or age capacities. Fre- 
quently, especially among the older children, it requires 
an organization of groups within age periods according 
to ability. 

The activities taught and practiced in this period 
should cover all the groups in the classified list above. 
It is the period in which tactical and calisthenic drills 
may or should be taught, but it is not a period for 
such drills only. It is equally a period for instruction 
and practice in the more important instinctively impelled 
activities. The activities should parallel those of the 
supervised play period — the one from the standpoint 
of instruction and the other from the standpoint of a 
broader participation. The one should contribute to 
and determine the activities of the other. This .re- 
quires a division of any period according to the number 
of activities taught, or the organization of several in- 
structional periods through the week for different ac- 
tivities, such as swimming, dancing, etc. 

Between Class Relief Period. — This period is distinctly 
a relief period. It is designed, primarily, to counteract 
the detrimental influences of sedentary, desk, and men- 
tal occupations. Coming between classes it relieves 
from the fatigue of the class just closed, and freshens 
for the class to come. The time suggested is not suffi- 
cient for the period to rank as a constructive physical 
training period ; it simply tends to counteract the bad 
effects of school life. 

" A minimum of two minutes between two sedentary 
class periods should be devoted to fatigue relieving, or 
circulation stimulating activities. Gymnastic or setting 
up drills may be given if the individual teacher is skill- 
ful enough to handle drills successfully to get physiologi- 
cal results, and if local conditions make them the only 
exercises possible. But formalized exercises- to com- 
mand are fatiguing. A brisk run across the school 
yard, or a run in place is more valuable than a drill in- 
correctly conducted. Any activity of the classified list 

1 California State Manual on 



which can be conducted with vigor and dispatch for all 
the children of the group at once under local conditions 
should be considered legitimate for this period. The 
object is to stimulate, relieve, and freshen. Where 
there are long recess periods between classes, they 
should count as relief periods. 

Special Corrective Period. — This period is designed 
especially for children having structural or functional 
defects which handicap and which may be corrected by 
special active or passive movements or exercises. These 
children must be handled as individual cases and with 
individual attention, and so far as the defects are con- 
cerned, apart from the other periods, hence the special 
period ; but this does not mean that these children 
should not have the activities of the other periods also 
where they are able physically to enter into these 
activities. In many cases they need the activities, 
organic vigor, strength, skill and character discipline, 
more than children without defects. The special cor- 
rective activities are developmental only in a very 
narrow sense. 

" Participation must be determined in each case by 
an examination, conducted by a skilled person. Only 
the expert physical educator or the instructor who has 
had special training is capable of handling the children 
and activities of' this period. The inexperienced in- 
structor should refer corrective cases to an expert, or 
to a surgeon." 1 

Phases of Physical Education. — There are a large 
number of phases of physical education which are being 
focused under one head. These phases have been called 
athletics, calisthenics, military training, folk dancing, 
play, hygiene, medical inspection, etc. These various 
branches have in the past been operated more or less 
independently of each other, but in an educational sys- 
tem it is very essential to unite them into a compre- 
hensive plan. 

The modern viewpoint of physical education is in- 
debted to Clark W. Hetherington for the classification 
of activities. The following will in general be based on 
his classification. 

i. Natural Play Activities. — These activities include 
all of the instinctive activities which the child naturally 
loves. The California Syllabus on Physical Education 
outlines the following : 

a. Self-Testing Activities. — This phase includes all 
of the stunts beginning with the simple hop or skin- 
the-cat and leading up to the most difficult exercises 
on the horizontal bar and parallel bars. This includes 
what has been known as " heavy gymnastics." 

b. Dramatic Activities. — This list of activities takes 
in all of the games where the imagination is brought 

Physical Education, page 19. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



223 



into play, and covers the scope from simple action 
stories to the matter of acting out Mother Goose rhymes 
and fairy tales. 

c. Rhythmic Activities. — This class of activities takes 
in all of the rhythmic work, beginning with the simplest 
singing games and leading up to the most difficult " folk 
dances." 

d. Hunting Games. — This class of activities takes 
in all of the list of tag games where one person is " it," 



g. Water Activities. — This type takes in all of the 
activities which have water as a medium, beginning 
with wading and leading up to swimming. 

h. Winter Activities. — This includes all types of 
activities which have to do with winter, including skat- 
ing, sliding, skiing, tobogganing, etc. 

2. Formal Activities. — This type of activities takes 
in all of the marching, calisthenics, gymnastic drills, 
posture instruction, etc. In the past, this has been the 




FLQOL P L A .N OF A GYMNASIUM BUILD1N6. 



5 CALL 
Fig. 194. 



and begins with the very simplest games of cat-and- 
mouse, drop-the-handkerchief, etc., and leads up to the 
more complicated games of prisoner's base, bear line, 
and games of like nature. 

e. Athletic Activities. — This type of activities takes 
in all of the various forms of athletics, including : 

Individual Athletics — track and field events. 

Single or Dual Games — tennis, handball, etc. 

Team Games — basket ball, baseball, etc. 
/. Personal Combative Activities. — This phase in- 
cludes all of the activities of wrestling, boxing, fencing, 
singlestick work, broadsword, etc. 



phase that has been known in the minds of many as 
" physical culture," later, " physical training." At a 
glance one will see that it is a very narrow interpreta- 
tion. This interpretation, however, has become so uni- 
versal that to-day physical education means in the minds 
of many teachers nothing more than lining children up 
in the schoolroom and giving them a few formal exer- 
cises. This phase of work should not be neglected, but 
should be properly conducted, as it forms a very impor- 
tant part of the posture and disciplinary training. 

3. Related Activities. — A large group of related 
activities is also included under physical education. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



225 



This group includes all of the outing activities, camping, 
hiking, etc., in which exercise is involved. The matter 
of summer camps should become a very large part of 
physical education for our high school boys and girls. 

4. Teaching Efficient Living. — The whole phase of 
teaching efficient living is part of physical education, 
as it all tends to give the child the proper viewpoint 
in building himself into a strong and efficient citizen. 
This has been included in the past under the name of 
" teaching of hygiene." 

5. Control of Growth Handicaps. — This has to do 
entirely with the control of the many types of handi- 
caps under which children labor, including the condi- 
tions of eyes, ears, tonsils, adenoids, etc. 

6. Therapeutic Gymnastics. — All of the various 
phases of corrective work known as " corrective gymnas- 
tics " are included under the head of physical education. 

7. The Playground Movement. — • The whole phase 
of the playground movement either during the school 
year or during the summer season is a phase of the 
physical education program and should be brought 
entirely under one comprehensive plan. 

Physical Education in the Curriculum. A. Ele- 
mentary Schools. — Physical education should be placed 
in the curriculum with a definite schedule of time from 20 
to 40 minutes daily. This period should be distinctly 
an instruction period. It is a time to teach new ac- 
tivities and to lay the foundation for the entire program. 
Provision should also be made for the relief period, and 
one should be planned so that every hour in which the 
children are in a schoolroom is broken with at least 
one two-minute relief period. The play period should 
be at recess, noon, and after school. The bulk of this 
work will of necessity be done by the grade teacher, 
but with the aid of supervisors of city or county units. 

B. Intermediate or Junior High Schools. — In the 
intermediate or junior high schools from three to five 
hour periods weekly should be definitely set aside for 
physical education instruction. Special instructors 
should be employed for the boys and girls, as in few in- 
stances is it advisable to give the work in mixed classes. 

C. High Schools. — The problem in the high schools 
is entirely the problem of specialists, and a man should 
be employed for the boys' work and a woman for the 
girls'. From three to five hour periods weekly should 
be arranged for in the schedule of classes. Hygiene 
may possibly be taught in one of these classes, or it may 
be advisable to give it in a special course. Credit 
should be given for the work on the same basis as other 
subjects. Grades based on attitude toward the work, 
attendance, and improvement of health, should appear 
on the report cards, and strict graduation rules in regard 
to physical education credit should be lived up to. 



A secretary to the physical directors will be of great 
assistance. With the proper arrangement of classes 
the secretary could also do the accompanying work for 
rhythmic activities. 

The Physical Education Plant. — The physical edu- 
cation plant includes all of the equipment required to 
put into effect a thorough-going physical education 
program. This will differ somewhat for the high school, 
the intermediate school, and the elementary school, 
and will have to be adjusted to meet the needs of the 
program in the curriculum. 

All of the phases of equipment will be considered. 
Many will be applicable only to the large school. A se- 
lection, however, can be made according to the size, 
needs of the school, money, and space available. 

The Indoor Gymnasium. — The gymnasium can be 
considered to have three units : the office, with adequate 
rest room, or administrative unit ; the lockers, dressing- 
room, shower, and toilet unit ; the exercise floor or floors. 

Figure 194 shows a floor unit, and figure 195 shows 
the arrangement of three units. 

A . Office. — There should be separate offices for the 
men and women physical directors. Each office should 
be arranged as follows : 

1. An outer office, in which equipment can be placed 
for a secretary, who will take care of the files, corre- 
spondence, statistics, excuses, roll taking, examination 
blanks, etc. 

2. An inner office, in which there should be located 
an examination room, panel looking glass, dressing room, 
shower, storeroom, closet with washbowl and toilet, 
couch, complete first-aid kit and anthropometric 
apparatus. 

In the inner office of the woman director, there should 
be placed a number of rest chairs and couches, vary- 
ing with the size of the school. These are for the con- 
venience of the girls necessarily excused from the reg- 
ular work. 

From these offices, easy access should be had to the 
dressing rooms, gymnasium floor, and if possible, the 
athletic field, in order that better supervision may be 
maintained. 

Figure 195 carries out these plans. 

B. Lockers, showers, toilets and dressing rooms. 

I. Lockers. — The locker arrangement depends upon 
the amount of dressing room space available, as well 
as on the locker system in use for the regular school 
work. The following suggestions are given in the 
order of their preference : 

(1) A Gymnasium Locker Placed in the Dressing 
Room for Each Pupil. — This could be a half-size locker, 
minimum 12X12X36; thus double tiers could be ar- 
ranged. With this system all personal equipment can 



226 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



be placed in one locker and kept there. It, however, 
means duplication of lockers if the school has a locker 
system. 

(2) Cubical or Fiber Basket System. — In this sys- 
tem there are lockers of the above type provided for a 
class of minimum size. Each pupil has a fiber basket 
13X9X8, which contains his uniform and personal 
equipment. When not at class these boxes are filed by 
numbers. On coming to class the pupil gets his basket, 
carries it to the locker room and dresses for class work, 
putting his street clothes into the large dressing locker. 
This system requires the constant care of an attendant. 
Girls will require a larger basket. 

(3) Lockers for a Class of Maximum Size. — ■ This 
system requires lockers for one class. The personal 
equipment is brought from the school locker to the dress- 
ing room and returned to the school locker after class. 
The dressing room locker is thus used only during the 
period. 

(4) Keys. — The problem of keys is always a serious 
one, and probably no system will give perfect satis- 
faction. The combination lock system results in pupils 
forgetting the combination, and there is also the danger 
of one person remembering many combinations. The 
system of having each person provide his own lock, 
while quite satisfactory to the user of the locker, makes 
an inspection of a locker very difficult. Whatever 
system is employed, it is quite agreed that a system 
with a master key should be used, and duplicate key, 
so that the director and custodian may at times inspect 
the lockers. 

II. Showers. — The importance of the shower bath 
cannot be overestimated. It should follow all strenuous 
exercise periods, especially intermediate and high schools. 

(1) Boys. — The simplest type of shower is preferable 
for the boys' unit. These showers should be overhead, 
8 feet from floor, and operated by simple non-scalding 
valves which will easily regulate the supply of hot and 
cold water. The water is heated by a steam coil in the 
hot water tank, which operates automatically. An 
auxiliary system may be utilized. It should be supplied 
with an automatic thermostat which turns off the heat 
when the water reaches a temperature of between 130 
and 150 . The sides of the shower room should be lined 
with non-absorbent material. 

(2) Girls. — The only suggestion over and above those 
given for the boys' showers is that individual side showers 
should be used for the girls. Hair-drying machines 
should be provided. Non-absorbent partitions with 
canvas curtains should be used. Showers turned on by 
an attendant are successful. 

III. Toilets. — All toilets should be arranged within 
easy access of an outside entrance, so that they can be 



used directly from the play yard, as well as from the 
dressing room. 

IV. Dressing Room. — Four-foot aisles between the 
lockers should be provided in the dressing rooms, and 
the aisles should be covered with cheap washable rugs or 
linoleum strips. Complete drawings for the boys' unit 
as well as the girls' unit are given in figure 195. 

The two units above outlined, office and lockers, 
dressing room, showers and toilet, should be so planned 
that in case only enough money is available to erect a part 
of a gymnasium these two units could be erected first. 
In many parts of the country this is all of the building that 
will be needed. The work which is usually done on the 
gymnasium floor could many times be done in the yard. 
This will be true more and more for the future, as most 
of the physical training activities will be given in the 
open air, providing proper surfacing and sunshield and 
windbreaks are provided. 

C. Exercise Floor or Floors. — For public school 
use very little consideration need be given any room 
beyond the main exercise floor and attendant rooms. 
Consideration should be given early in the planning in 
regard to whether there will be a running track, or any 
large accommodation for an audience. 

Running Track. — There is a growing feeling that 
all running should be in the open air. This should be 
especially true for school children. If a track is in- 
stalled, it should be 6 feet wide with curves of not less 
than 15 feet radius. It should be covered with jV 
cork carpet. A brass sliding pole should be provided 
from the track to the main floor in order that there may 
be quick access from track to floor. See figure 196. 

Provision for Seating Audiences. — The school gym- 
nasium should not attempt to provide a large seating 
capacity. Some space may be arranged over the dress- 
ing room and office. Collapsible bleachers may be 
used on the large floor. See figure 197. 

Specifications for the Main Floor. — One of the first 
points to be determined will be the size of the gymnasium 
floor and the number of gymnasiums needed. One 
gymnasium should be adequate for a school with an en- 
rollment up to 700. This could be used on alternate 
days. While the boys use the gymnasium the girls 
could use the athletic field. 

In schools where the enrollment numbers above 700, 
two gymnasiums should be provided, one for the boys 
and one for the girls. See figure 195, which gives a sug- 
gestion. 

Size and Shape of Floor. — Regardless of the number 
of gymnasiums or the size of the school, the size and 
shape of the exercise floor will remain very much the 
same, as it is impracticable to handle more than fifty 
pupils in any one class. The extra space, of course, 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 




makes room for a variety of indoor athletic games, which 
is always an advantage. Many experts on this sub- 
ject suggest the proportion of length to width on the 
basis of 3 to 2. This, however, the writer does not feel 
is quite according to the needs, as the length should 
be a little more than the width under this proportion. 
The following schedule is submitted, which is believed 
to be better : 

Minimum size, 35X65 

Average size, 50X80 

Maximum size, 60X90 

Many gymnasiums, however, will be larger than this. 

Height. — Twenty-one feet is many times given as 

the height for a gymnasium. Other heights, however, 

have their place in the consideration of the needs of all 

types of public schools. The following heights are 

submitted. From the floor to the exposed wood or steel 

beams overhead : 

Minimum, 14 feet 
Average, 18 feet 
Maximum, 22 feet 
Roof and Trusses. — Architects should be cautioned 
against planning the construction of a sloping roof in 
such a manner that it brings the cross beams out of level 



with each other, which makes installation of apparatus 
difficult. The cross beams or trusses should be ar- 
ranged to accommodate standard pieces of apparatus. 
The following suggestions are submitted : 

Minimum width between trusses, 12 feet 
Average width between trusses, 14 feet 
Maximum width between trusses, 18 feet 
In the hanging of traveling rings from these trusses a 
3-inch pipe should be attached to the under side of the 
lower cords. The pipes should not be joined or coupled 
together unless there is a hanger on both sides of the 
coupling. The best method is to use pipe collars made 
by the leading apparatus manufacturers and bring ends 
of pipe together under center of cross beams with a 
collar supporting one end of each pipe. In frame con- 
struction it is cheaper to suspend a beam 8 feet from 
the side wall and parallel to it. This beam should be 
fastened securely between the crossbeams or trusses and 
flush with the bottom of them. 

Windows, Radiators, and Wall Fixtures. — - All win- 
dows, radiators, and wall fixtures should be located 
from the standpoint of the use of the side walls for the 
attachment of various pieces of apparatus and various 
games. At least a portion of one side should be kept 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



229 




Fig. 198. — Gymnasium, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



.l/r. Wm. A Poland, ArchiluJ 



free for handball and tennis serving. All windows 
should be screened and at least eight feet from the 
floor. The radiators should be screened and should be 
recessed in the walls with the covering screen flush 
with the wall. A portion of one end or side should be 
equipped with a large plate glass mirror in order that 
the class may observe postural defects. 

Lighting, Heating, Ventilation. — Large windows 
should be provided for light and ventilation. The 
patent window which opens out is the best type, as 
this permits the opening up of the whole side of the 
room. Skylights have not proven satisfactory, as the 
heat at certain times of the year is too intense. All 
lighting fixtures should be well protected. 

Floor. — Maple is preferred for flooring. There should 
be a rough under floor if inches in thickness and a fin- 
ished floor xt inch or i| inches in thickness. In case 
the light flooring is used it will be necessary to reen- 
force the floor at points where flush plates are used to 
hold guys of horizontal bars, etc. This can be done by 
inserting metal plates or wood strips under the apparatus 



plates when installing the equipment. Manufacturers 
will furnish instructions for doing this properly when 
plans and full particulars are given them. 

Marking of the Floor. — Gymnasium floor should be 
marked for basket ball, indoor baseball, volley ball, 
handball, and if possible tennis. This marking is more 
satisfactory if different colors are used for the various 
courts. Figure 199 of this chapter and figure 2 in chap- 
ter 1 contain suggestions in regard to floor marking. 

Gymnasium Apparatus. — Only such apparatus should 
be selected as will be used and adapt itself to class work. 

Selections may be had from the following : 

Boys' Gymnasium 

6 chest machines. 
24 section bar stalls. 
24 bar stall benches. 

2 vaulting horses. 

2 vaulting bucks. 

2 parallel bars. 

2 horizontal and vaulting bars. 

2 suspended horizontal bars. 

2 horizontal ladders. 



232 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




"~~~" fc iLJ * 



5 LOTION °A-A° 




51CT1QN 5° 




°OUTDOOIl SW1MA1MG POOL' 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



233 




Photograph, Outdoor Gymnas 



Boys' Gymnasium — Continued. 

2 to 4 pairs flying rings. 

6 traveling rings. 
1 incline board. 
6 to 1 2 climbing ropes. 

3 to 6 rope ladders. 

1 pair jumping standards. 
1 spring board. 
1 vaulting standard. 
1 pole vaulting board. 
4 jump boards. 
10 mattresses of various sizes. 
1 or 2 pairs basket ball backstops and goals. 
Girls' Gymnasium. 

1 boom. 

24 section bar stalls. 

2 bar saddles. 

24 bar stall benches. 
2 vaulting horses. 
1 vaulting box. 
4 jump boards. 
6 traveling rings. 
6 balance beams. 
1 pair jumping standards. 
1 incline board. 



1 spring board. 
6 to 1 2 climbing ropes. 
1 adjustable ladder. 
1 vertical window ladder. 

1 horizontal window ladder. 
3 to 6 rope ladders. 

1 or 2 sets basketball goals. 

2 pairs flying rings, 
mats 

miscellaneous small apparatus. 
Combined Boys' and Girls' Gymnasium. 
6 chest weights. 
24 sections bar stalls. 
24 bar stall benches. 
2 vaulting horses. 
2 vaulting bucks. 
2 parallel bars. 

2 horizontal and vaulting bars. 
1 or 2 swinging booms. 

1 adjustable ladder. 
3 to 6 rope ladders. 

6 to 12 climbing ropes. 

2 pairs flying rings. 
6 traveling rings. 

1 pair jump standards. 



234 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Combined Boys' and Girls' Gymnasium- — Continued. 
.1 spring board, 
i inclined board. 

mattresses. 
4 jump boards, 
i or 2 pairs basket ball goals, 
calisthenic apparatus. 



manufacturers if the necessary information is given 
them. 

Room for Corrective Gymnastics. — A special correc- 
tive room may be arranged over the office and shower 
rooms. In this room should be placed an abdominal 
stool, plinth, stall bar, single wall parallel bars, two 
tables, and two bar stalls. 
Information and advice regarding the equipment of Game Room. — A special room should also be pro- 
gymnasiums may be obtained gratis from the apparatus vided for the boys for boxing, wrestling, fencing, 




PHYSICAL EDUCATION 




Fig. 204. 

punching the bag, etc. A handball court might be 
planned. 

Swimming-Pools. — Swimming as an activity in con- 
nection with our schools has a very important place in 
physical education, and complete swimming facilities 
should be provided at least by all intermediate and high 
schools. 

Indoor Pool. Size. — A narrow pool is desirable, as 
the side of the pool may be much more easily reached 
by persons who are just learning to swim. Wherever 
possible, an outdoor pool should be used, but if an indoor 
pool is used, the matter of ventilation should be care- 
fully considered. A skylight would be an advantage. 
At least plenty of windows should be provided, so that 
the place could be flooded with the direct rays of the 
sun. See figure No. 200. 

The following sizes are suggested for school condi- 
tions : 

20X40, minimum size 
25X75, maximum size 

Other Dimensions. — The depth at the shallow part 
of the pool should be 3 feet and at the deepest point 8 
feet, 6 inches. See figure 201 . The deepest point of the 
pool should be ten to twelve feet from the deep end, 
thus the pool will slope both ways to this point. The 
sides of the pool should be clearly marked to show 
depth of the water. An overflow drain should be pro- 
vided. It is sometimes combined with a hand rail 
and " spit gutter " around the entire pool. Water 
should be kept constantly flowing over this rail. Ten 
per cent to fifteen per cent of the contents of this pool 
should flow over the rail each day. 



Photo of Sandbox, Slide and Gymnasium Frame. 



When designing the drainage, the disposal of the 
water when emptying the pool should be carefully 
planned. Unless this is observed the house drains 
and plumbing fixtures will be flooded. Where possible, 
the water should be used for the irrigation of the lawns 
and gardens. 

Problems in Connection with the Sanitary Condition 
of the Water. — To be exact, water in which people 
swim should be as pure as the water which they drink. 
This, however, is seldom the case. The main problems 
in connection with pure water are as follows : 

(1) Secure pure water to begin with. In other words, 
see that the source of the water is pure. 

(2) See that persons who use the pool cleanse 
themselves thoroughly before entering the pool. This 
does not mean having an entire class run through a 
shower, but means the application of warm water and 
soap. 

(3) See that the suits are clean. Bathing suits 
should be thoroughly cleaned after being used. Care 
should be taken that swimming suits are dyed with 
fast dyes. 

(4) Treatment of water after having been used. 

(a) Filtration. — The most common method of treat- 
ing the water is by a well-constructed filtration plant, 
and from experience it will probably be given first 
preference. 

(b) Ultra- Violet Ray System. — The ultra-violet ray 
system when installed by a reliable firm does excellent 
work. 

(c) Chemicals. — A number of chemicals are used for 
purifying the water : 



236 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



s 




Fig. 205. — Kindergarten Porch, Emerson Sci 



Oakland, Califor: 




Copper sulphate 
Anhydrous chloride 
Chloride of lime 

Of these three, chloride of lime is recommended as 
being the easiest to handle and the most efficient. One- 
tenth pound to 5000 gallons of water is recommended as 
a dosage every 3 or 4 days. The water should be exam- 
ined frequently. 

(5) Heating. Figure 201 shows means of heating pool. 

Outdoor Pool. — The open air pool is preferred where 
conditions warrant. Figure 201 gives a number of sug- 
gestions in this line. 

Outdoor Semi-Outdoor Gymnasium. — As was sug- 
gested under Indoor Gymnasium, the matter of provid- 
ing the gymnasium with adequate fresh air is a big 
problem. In all places where weather will permit and 
in all climates when the weather is mild all of the 
gymnastic work should be conducted in the open 
air. See figure 203. There are a number of elements 
which make this difficult, and they vary in different 
climates. The winter season in certain states will be 
the biggest obstacle. Casual rain, severe wind, and the 



hot suns are also heavy impediments. A semi-outdoor 
gymnasium could be provided with a roof and with side 
walls open above 12 feet. Thus in good weather the 
exercise can be taken practically in the open, and during 
inclement weather protection may be had. 

Play Yard (Outdoor Exercise Floor). — The school 
play yard should be considered a large exercise floor for a 
number of reasons : 

(1) It should be equipped for all physical training 
activities. 

(2) It should be equipped as a community play- 
ground for the recreation of the adult and the play 
activities of the children. As such it should be open 
after school hours, Saturdays, Sundays, holidays, and 
vacations. 

Old Idea of Equipment of Play Yard. — The old idea 
of equipping a play yard was that there should be a 
large amount of equipment on a relatively small piece 
of ground, and the children would come there and amuse 
themselves. Thus there were a great many swings, 
slides, teeters, teeter ladders, giant strides, merry-go- 
rounds, apparatus to climb on, etc. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 




New Idea of Equipment of Play Yard. — The new idea 
of equipment of play yards is that there shall be a rela- 
tively large piece of ground with a few standard pieces 
of equipment. Large areas shall be left for running 
and team games, such as hockey, soccer, baseball, basket 
ball, etc. It is in these games that great social values 
are derived, and these can never be derived from the 
individual play of the old type of playground. 

Field House. — With school buildings that are not 
equipped for this modern idea a field house will have 
to be provided, in which will be located showers, dress- 
ing rooms, toilets, and an office. 

Size of Play Yard. — ■ The elementary school play 
yard should vary between 3 and 7 acres, according to 
the size of the school. Efficient work for large numbers 
cannot be done on a yard with smaller space than this. 

The intermediate school play yard should cover from 
10 to 15 acres, as the needs of the older boys and girls 
will be considerably greater than they are in the ele- 
mentary grades. 

The high school playground should cover from 15 to 
25 acres, with complete facilities for the handling of all 
types of high school and adult activities. 

Plan and Equipment of Play Yard. — The pieces of 
apparatus should be arranged around the sides of the 



ground, thus leaving all of the central part of the ground 
for athletic games. On small elementary school grounds 
the girls' and small children's apparatus should be placed 
on the side of the ground near the school building, and 
the boys' on the space furthest from the school build- 
ing. This arrangement tends to give the girls and 
small children protection from the balls in the heavier 
athletic games and it also protects the windows in the 
school building. Baseball fields and courts especially 
should be arranged at the furthest point from the school 
building, where possible in the northeast corner of the 
grounds. The next choice should be the northwest 
corner, the southwest and southeast following in turn. 
Football fields, tennis courts, basket ball courts, volley 
ball courts, where possible, should be laid out north 
and south, in order to protect the players from the 
direct rays of the sun. Activities should be conducted 
in a safe place. 

Elementary School. — ■ Plan No. 1. The Emerson 
School, Oakland, Calif. (Figure 203) is a small, well- 
balanced yard. Description of apparatus indicated by 
numbers in figure 203 is as follows : 

No. 1. Girls' Sand Box. The dimensions of this 
are 1X5X12 feet. It is equipped with a shelf around 
the top, which serves either as a seat or a molding table. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




It is filled with a coarse grade of sand, which will not 
become dusty in dry weather or muddy when mois- 
tened. 

See figure 204. 

No. 2. Girls' Slide. This is a medium-sized slide and 
equipped with a landing pit filled with clean sand. 

For a substitute — -Horizontal Ladder (Girls). This 
should be purchased or well constructed. Rails, if" 
oval made from 2"X6" — 14' long, 16" apart; rundles 
of hard wood i£" diameter. Set 6' 6" from ground 
well supported. 

No. 3. Girls' Gymnasium Frame, which consists of a 
set of six traveling rings. This particular unit has been 
found most satisfactory for girls. 

No. 4. Girls' Volley Ball Court, which has 4X4 
inch posts set in sockets, so that they may be easily 
moved. 

No. 5. Girls' Basket Ball Court — posts set in sockets. 
(Numbers 4 and 5 are convertible into tennis courts 
during seasons when basket ball is not played.) 

No. 6. Double Handball Courts. One side for 
boys and the other for girls. This consists of plain hand- 
ball backstops twenty feet wide, twelve feet high, with 
a six-foot wire extension. See figure 205. 

No. 7. Boys' Basket Ball Court — posts set in 
sockets. 

No. 8. Boys' Volley Ball Court — posts set in sockets. 
(Number 7 and 8 are convertible into tennis courts.) 

No. 9. Boys' Gymnasium Frame. Unit selected for 
boys' gymnasium frame is one horizontal bar, one 
climbing pole, one climbing ladder, two sets flying 
rings. 

Substitute: Horizontal Bar (Boys'). Hickory or 
steel bars can be purchased. A i"x6' galvanized iron 



gas pipe will do. Set in two posts so that the bar will 
be rigid. 

A high bar 6' 6" and a low bar 5' should be con- 
structed. An adjustable bar with holes in 6"x6" 
posts from 2' to 5' is not difficult to make and is very 
valuable. 

No. 10. High Slide for Boys, equipped with landing- 
pit filled with sand. 

No. n. Sand Box for Boys, equipped as number 1. 

No. 12. Soccer Posts, made of 6X6 inch posts. Size 
of field is reduced to 50X80 yards, which has proved 
satisfactory for school playground purposes. Hockey 
is played on this field. 

High Jumping Pit, filled with shavings. 

Wire Cage Backstop for baseball. See figure 206. 

Hockey Field (played on soccer field) size 150' X 225' 
(smaller size will do) . Construction : a. surface — 
smooth and level, b. Goals — 4"X6" uprights 7' 
(4"X4" will do) above the ground 12' apart with a 2"x 
4" crossbar. If posts are not available, mark the dis- 
tance with two stones or other objects. 

No. 13. Open Pergola Porch, covered with canvas 
in the summer time, which affords a place for small 
children to hold club meetings and enjoy diversified 
play. See figure 205. 

Surface marked X is an oil macadam composition. 
It makes an excellent surface for court games. 

Surface marked Y is covered with crushed rock dust. 
It makes a good baseball field, but is a little too hard 
for football, for which sandy loam would be better. 

Plan No. 2 — ■ figure 207. 

This is a better arrangement than in figure 203, as 
more open space is left for the girls' large games. Also 
tennis courts are provided. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 




— Track, Bushrod Playground, Oakland, California. 



Figure 208 shows a playground for elementary boys 
and girls with a small field house adjacent. The division 
of the ground for boys and girls will be noted. The 
swings are fenced, courts well marked. The gymnasium 
frame has a layer of 12" to 14" of shavings under it. 



Intermediate School. — As the games for the inter- 
mediate school are more vigorously played than those of 
the elementary school, greater allowance should be made 
for areas between play courts. Therefore the intermedi- 
ate school requires the following additional equipment : 




-Hockey Field, Mosswood Park, Oakland, California. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




ZXG R-0-t^)1^)-&0-^000 e O © G O <-r0 O <DO-GK:Tl^tZK 




proposed arr.ang6aemt 
Jordinos »» P-Aklk,^" Play ground Aiieas 







3^:1) 












fel 


H-.-..W a, ,.-„ |, 

• ' ' i t; p ii .; %* - " ; '* ' r 


___ _ _ "">■"" """ 



Fig. 

Boys' Field. 

2 tennis courts. See Fig. 209. 
2 handball courts. 

j mile running track (football and baseball fields in the 
oval). Fig. 210. 

1 soccer field (15C/X240'). 

2 basket ball courts. 

Girls' Field. 

2 tennis courts. 

4 indoor baseball diamonds — 45' base line. 

1 hockey field and general play area. Fig. 211. 

2 volley ball courts. 



2 basket ball courts. 
1 soccer field. 

1 canvas golf driving net and green. 

Girls' Yard. 

3 tennis courts. 

4 indoor baseball diamonds — 45 ft. bases. 

2 hockey fields. 

4 volley ball courts. 

s golf driving net and green. 



High School. — In addition to the equipment of the 
elementary school playground, the high school should 
have the following : 

Boys' Yard. 

3 tennis courts. 
2 handball courts. 

\ mile running track (football and baseball fields to be 
placed in the oval). 



Figure 212 shows a fine arrangement for a large inter- 
mediate school or a small high school. The part marked 
" Agricultural Area " should be the girls' athletic field, 
and the part of ground just in front should be used for 
the agricultural area. 

This ground occupies 15^ acres. Many new high 
schools are acquiring as high as 30 acres for a school 
site. This allows ample space, for a thoroughgoing 
program of Physical Education for the entire student 
body of a large school when properly organized. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

By William F. Ewing, M.A., Principal, Pasadena High School, Pasadena,, California 

I. Small Elementary School, (i) Principal's Office. (2) Teachers' Room. (3) Janitor's Quarters. (4) Playground Supervi- 
sor's Office. II. Large Elementary School. (1) General Plan. (2) Principal's Office. (3) Teachers' Rest Room. (4) Girls', Rest 
Room. (5) Library. (6) Janitor's Office. (7) Playground Supervisor's Office. (8) Teachers' Lunch Room. III. Medium-sized 
High School or a Junior High School. (1) General Plan. (2) General Office. (3) Principal's Office. (4) Men Teachers' Room. 
(5) Women Teachers' L Room. (6) Girls' Rest Room. IV. Administrative Offices in a Large High School. (1) General Plan. 
(2) Registrar's Office. (3) Principal's Office. (4) Office of Dean of Girls. (5) Office of Dean of Boys. (6) Office of Continua- 
tion School Principal. (7) Attendance Office. (8) Offices for Heads of Departments. 



Administrative Offices in Public School Buildings. 

— In responding to the growing demands of modern 
social life, our schools have become highly organized 
institutions. In the planning and construction of large 
up-to-date school buildings we ought to make a scientific 
study of the size and orientation of grounds, of the proper 
arrangement of classrooms, offices, and other parts of 
the plant. We should be able to assist the school archi- 
tect in securing good lighting, satisfactory ventilating 
and heating and proper sanitary arrangements. We 
ought to know the kind and quality of equipment to 
be installed. 

The proper development of the child is the most im- 
portant thing in education. This thought should be 
the guiding principle for boards of education, super- 
intendents, principals, teachers, and others interested 
in promoting and extending the ideals of American 
education. A generation ago we limited our school 
activities almost exclusively to academic studies. Now 
the school has become the center of the child's world ; 
not merely an intellectual one, but a real, physical, 
and social world. 

Our public schools are co-educational. Pupils are 
living as truly in their educational life at school as they 
ever will after school days are over. Communities 
spend thousands of dollars for a single school building. 
We want the best for our children. However, one of 
the most important features in the planning of school 
buildings seems almost wholly neglected. That is the 
administrative quarters. The reason for this is that 
school administrators have failed to study the problem, 
leaving it to the architect to assign such areas as would 
best fit into the general plan. The result has been poorly 
arranged and inadequate quarters. 



Many years' experience in private and public schools 
convinces the writer that the enrollment of the school 
and size of plant are both increasing. In rural com- 
munities, consolidation of numerous small districts 
into larger, more modern organizations is growing. 
In cities we are coming to look upon schools of five 
hundred to one thousand children as quite ordinary. 
In the cosmopolitan centers there are individual schools 
having enrollments varying from one thousand to three 
thousand pupils. As our schools increase in size, the 
more complex become the administrative problems. 
The larger school buildings indicate a tendency toward 
the centralization of the administrative offices. 

For convenience it has seemed best to divide this 
discussion into four parts : 

I. Administrative offices in a small 'elementary 
school. 

II. Administrative offices in a large elementary 
school. 

III. Administrative offices in a medium-sized or 
junior high school. 

IV. Administrative offices in a large high school. 
Administrative Offices in a Small Elementary School. 

— Assuming that the small elementary school has an 
enrollment of from one hundred and twenty to three 
hundred children, and estimating an average of thirty 
pupils per teacher, we shall have from four teachers to 
ten teachers in the school. The need for careful plan- 
ning will obviously increase with the size of the school. 
A study of the literature on school architecture shows 
that much has been written on grounds and little on the 
planning of school buildings. 

The following plan is suggested for small elementary 
schools. (See figure 214.) 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



• riLOWT VIILW- 

t cachw' post orncr, & UCHAKG£ SOX- 



i. Principal's office. 

2. Teachers' room. 

3. Janitor's office. 

4. Office for the playground supervisor. 

The Principal's Office. — In most public school build- 
ings the principal's office is located on the first floor 
near the main entrance. Unfortunately for adminis- 



tration, it is most frequently located facing the street 
and not the playground. It should be well lighted 
and large enough to carry on the work of administration 
without crowding. Since necessity often requires the 
principal to work in her office after full hours and on 
days when school is not in session, there should be some 
means of heating the office independently of the general 
plant. The floor of the office and all other administra- 
tive offices should be covered with battleship linoleum. 
A good Wilton rug will add to the comfort and attrac- 
tiveness of the room. A fine quality of scrim curtains 
may be hung at the windows. 

The interior finish should be quarter-sawed, antique 
oak. The furniture should be of the same kind and 
finish as the interior. Since the needs of the school are 
constantly changing, portable filing cabinets and sec- 
tional bookcases are desirable. These are well made 
and being constructed in units can be increased or de- 
creased according to demand. A teachers' exchange 
cabinet, containing compartments for all the teachers, 
the janitor and supervisor, should be attached to the 
wall near the entrance to the office. At the bottom of 
the cabinet there should be an extra long division for 
large books, maps, etc. (For dimensions of the cabinet, 
see figure 213.) 



ASSU1U 






C lb It, I D O IL • 




■PLAN OF PRINCIPAL'S AND TLA CH EDS SUITE TO! A SMALL ILLMlflTATLY SCHOOL - 



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H PUBLIC TI,LI,?HOM, 

H PIUVAT% lKTfJUOOHAlUHICATING PHCNt, 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



245 



If there is sufficient wall space on either side of the 
exchange cabinet, one or more bulletin boards should 
be installed. A bulletin board should be at least two 
feet by four feet in size. It should be faced with a 
layer of cork. A beveled edge, plate glass top for the 
desk will prove a great convenience, for under it school 
and health regulations, telephone numbers, programs 
and other items of information most frequently used 
can be neatly and carefully kept. A few good pictures 
should be selected for the walls of the room. 

A door opening from the principal's office into a class- 
room is an advantage, for it provides a means to keep 
some one in touch with the telephone and office when 
the principal is engaged in supervision elsewhere. Ad- 
jacent to the office there should be a conference and sup- 
ply room. It should be fitted with ample cabinets for 
keeping books and supplies that are needed frequently. 
It is a good plan to have cabinets closed with glass doors 
that can be locked. The conference room should have a 
door opening into the corridor. This would afford 
easy access for the janitor to deliver supplies, and it 
would serve also as an exit for callers. 

The school telephone exchange, master clock, and 
public telephone are invariably placed in the principal's 
office. Provision should be made for a lavatory and 
toilet directly off the office. 

The principal's room should be made as attractive 
as possible, not merely for the satisfaction of the prin- 
cipal herself, but for the wholesome effect it will have on 
teachers, pupils, and patrons. 

The Teachers' Room. — Every school building should 
provide convenient quarters for the teachers when they 
are not on duty. The size of the room will depend 
upon the number of teachers employed in the school 
building. The interior finish, curtains, kind and quality 
of furniture should correspond to that of the principal's 
office. The room might serve as a rest room and din- 
ing-room combined. It ought to be furnished with a 
couch, pillows and blankets, and a " first-aid " outfit. 

Adjacent to the teachers' room there should be a set 
of toilets and a lavatory. Opening into the room there 
should be a small kitchen equipped with a gas stove, 
sink, china closet, and such cooking utensils as are neces- 
sary for preparing simple meals. There should be an 
exit from the kitchen direct to the corridor. In some 
schools full-sized steel lockers are placed in or near the 
teachers' room for use of the teachers. 

The Janitors Quarters. — • A casual examination of the 
plans of scores of the best, up-to-date school build- 
ings discloses the fact that almost always the jani- 
tor's quarters are located in the basement of the build- 
ing. Frequently they are put in a dark, poorly venti- 
lated place near the furnace. If the janitor has an 



office, it is often a portion of the furnace room. Such 
conditions should no longer obtain. The janitor ought 
to have a comfortable office, well lighted, properly 
ventilated and heated. It should be equipped with a 
washstand having both hot and cold water connec- 
tions. In addition there should be a full-sized steel 
locker. If possible, the office should face the school 
playground. 

In the primary school the janitor is usually the only 
male employee. His influence among the boys often 
counts for more than that of the teacher. If he is kind 
and sympathetic, he may also claim the friendship of 
the girls. The wise and loyal janitor can easily pre- 
vent many cases of petty discipline from reaching the 
principal. 

Adjacent to or near the janitor's office, there should be 
a storage and work room. Tools and school supplies 
needed only occasionally may be kept there. A good 
work bench should be provided for the room. 

An Office for the Playground Supervisor. — Many 
cities have established municipal playgrounds in con- 
nection with the schools. These playgrounds are open 
after school hours until five p.m. or later, according 
to the season of the year. They are in charge of a 
playground supervisor, who may be a teacher in the school 
or a regular municipal playground employee. If a school 
is planned for after school activities, it is desirable to 
have an office for the supervisor. 

The office should be located in the basement, facing 
the playground. The interior and furniture should be 
similar to that of the janitor's office. Since the play- 
ground supervisor needs to have easy communication 
with school officials and homes, the office should be 
connected with an outside telephone. 

It should be furnished with a desk and chairs and a 
cabinet for keeping supplies such as balls, bats, nets, 
and mits. In short, the playground supervisor's office 
ought to be so well furnished that it would be unneces- 
sary to use any part of the regular school equipment. 

A portion of the office should be set apart as a dress- 
ing room. It should be equipped with a washstand 
fitted for both hot and cold water, full-sized steel lockers 
for keeping clothing and other valuables, and with a 
couch, pillows and blankets, and a " first-aid " outfit. 

Administrative Offices in a Large Elementary School. 
— Practice seems to favor the centralizing of admin- 
istrative offices in large schools. In many cities, school 
buildings are constructed on the unit plan, thus provid- 
ing an easy and satisfactory means for enlarging the 
plant, but it is usually quite difficult to increase the 
number and size of the administrative offices, hence it 
is desirable to plan them in the beginning for the maxi- 
mum capacity of the school. 



246 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Assuming that the large elementary school will have 
an enrollment of from three hundred to fifteen hundred 
pupils and estimating an average of thirty pupils to a 
teacher, we shall have from ten to fifty teachers in the 
school. The need for ample quarters, therefore, is 
obvious. The real problem is to determine definitely 
what rooms should be included in the administrative 
suite. For our discussion let us include most of those 
quarters which are not directly under the supervision 
of the class teachers. We shall then have the following. 




planned large school buildings we find an outer wait- 
ing room. The entrance to it is usually from the vesti- 
bule or the main corridor. It is a great convenience 
to have an outer waiting room where the teachers may 
register their time on arriving at school in the morning 
and leaving again in the afternoon. Figure 215 shows 
a division between the public waiting room or lobby 
and the secretary's office. The two divisions of this 
office may well be separated by means of a large, wide 
counter, at one end of which is a gate providing an 



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General Plan. (See figure 215.) 

1. A principal's office. (See figure 216.) 

2. A teachers' rest room. • 

3. A girls' rest room. 

4. A library. 

5. A janitor's office. 

6. An office for the playground supervisor. 

7. A teachers' lunch room. 

The Principal's Office. — In the large elementary 
school the principal's office should be spacious enough 
to accommodate several persons at the same time. 
Frequently the principal wishes to call meetings of va- 
rious groups of pupils or teachers or both ; these can be 
held in the principal's" office better than elsewhere, if 
there is ample room. 

The fixtures, floor covering, filing cabinets, and book- 
cases should be of the same kind and quality as those 
in the small elementary school. In any of the best- 



entrance to the secretary's desk. The inside of the 
counter should be fitted with shelves and pigeonholes 
for keeping blank forms and office supplies. There 
should be an easy entrance from the secretary's office 
to the principal's. 

This plan shows both lavatory and toilet directly in 
the rear of the principal's private office. An exit from 
the latter office is desirable. It is often embarrassing 
to dismiss parents or teachers into the public waiting 
room. 

The Teachers' Rest Room. — In order that the prin- 
cipal may have an easy means of supervising the 
teachers' room, it seems advisable to have it located 
near the main office. General practice indicates this, 
although in some well-arranged buildings the teachers' 
rest room is located on the second floor rather than 
opposite the principal's office on the first floor. The 
location of the room will be determined by the con- 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 




Fig. 216. — Principal's Office, Clawson School, Oakland, California. 



venience it offers the teachers. Figure 215 shows a 
rest room opening from the main entrance and having 
an exit to the main corridor as well as to the girls' rest 
room. The teachers' rest room should be fitted with 
suitable chairs, couches, blankets, pillows, and other 
comforts. Adjacent to the room or opening into it there 
should be a locker room, a set of toilets, and a lavatory. 

The Girls' Rest Room. — The girls' rest room should 
be provided with toilets, a lavatory, and a supply 
room. The rest room should be furnished with a table 
and chairs, couches, pillows and blankets, and a " first 
aid " outfit. For convenience there ought to be an 
exit to the main corridor. One of the main reasons 
for placing the girls' rest room adjacent to the teachers' 
is that the teachers should have pretty close super- 
vision over the girls wherever they happen to be. 

The Library. — The up-to-date, large elementary school 
should have a room set apart for a library. It should 
be fitted with bookcases or cabinets covered with glass 
doors. The size of the room and the capacity of the 
cases will depend largely upon the size and character of 



the school. If it has free text books there should be 
ample storage for all incoming books and other supplies 
frequently used. Figure 215 shows entrances to the 
library both from the principal's office and from the 
main corridor. 

The Janitor s Office. — The usual practice provided an 
office for the janitor in the basement of the building. 
If possible it should be so located that there will be 
easy access to the furnace room, to the playground, and 
to the boys' toilets. The office should be placed so it 
will have an abundance of light and good ventilation. 
It should be equipped with proper furniture and a 
locker for clothing and other valuables. It should 
have a washstand fitted with hot and cold water. If 
possible, adjacent to the janitor's office there should 
be a work room fitted with a good work bench and ade- 
quate tools for doing repair work. In many schools 
the janitor is the only person who can attend to small 
repairs when they are most needed. If the school has a 
garden, it would be well to provide the janitor with 
garden tools. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



An Office for the Playground Supervisor. — • If the 
school has a playground, a good office should be pro- 
vided for its supervisor. Almost none of the plans 
of elementary schools show any provision for this ac- 
tivity, although many cities have established play- 
grounds in connection with the larger elementary schools. 
The playground office should be well lighted and heated. 
It should have linoleum floor covering, with perhaps 
one or two small mats. The office should have a table 
and chairs and a cabinet for keeping playground sup- 
plies. Generally the playground work is in charge of 
one of the women teachers. It is quite desirable that she 
should have a place to dress and to keep her personal 
effects when she is attired in playground costume. A 
small dressing room containing a couch, blankets, " first 
aid " outfit, a washstand and locker would prove a great 
convenience. 

The Teachers' Lunch Room. — Since the teachers' 
lunch room forms a daily meeting place for teachers 
and principal, it seems best to include it in the adminis- 
trative offices. Some modern school buildings have 
provided lunch room and kitchen facilities solely for 
the use of the teachers, though in many schools the 
domestic science equipment is used by the teachers 
for preparing light lunches. The best plan, however, 
seems to require separate accommodations for teachers 
and pupils. The location of the lunch room should 
naturally be determined by the character of the build- 
ing. If there is a high, well ventilated basement, and 
room can be found to locate the teachers' lunch room 
and kitchen on the sunny side of the building, there is 
no objection to having it placed in the basement. The 
lunch room should be large enough to accommodate 
all the teachers and one or two occasional visitors. 
There should be plenty of chairs and a good table. 
The lunch room should be as cosy and homelike as pos- 
sible. Immediately off from the lunch room there 
should be a kitchen fitted with a gas range, china closet, 
sink, and such utensils as may be regulated for prepar- 
ing simple lunches. 

Administrative Offices in a Medium-Sized High 
School or in a Junior High School. — In the past, the 
planning of administrative quarters in the medium- 
sized academic high school received more attention than 
those of other school buildings. An explanation for 
this condition may be easily found. For many years 
the city high school was a medium-sized organization. 
It was the pride of the city. High school principals 
and high school teachers learned the administrative 
needs of the school by years of experience. Further- 
more, the high school faculty was composed of a com- 
paratively small group of men and women. They 
were well acquainted with each other. They were 



known by their pupils. The principal could issue 
orders by " word of mouth," and he could personally 
supervise the work of each teacher and of every class. 

All these conditions obtained in the older academic 
type of school. But with the expansion of our high 
school curriculum and the inclusion of many formerly 
so-called extra-curricular studies, we are forced to pay 
more attention to the planning of the school and the 
administrative offices. 

Figure 217 embodies some of the best ideas for the 
medium-sized high school. 

General Plan. 

1. A general office. 

2. A principal's office. 

3. A room for men teachers. 

4. A room for women teachers. 

5. A girls' rest room. 

The General Office. — In the medium-sized high school 
we frequently find that there is an outer office or 
waiting room adjacent to the principal's office. This 
seems to be a desirable plan, for many of the questions 
that come to the principal's office can be answered 
without interrupting the constructive work of the prin- 
cipal. Figure 217 shows a large general office near the 
main entrance. Entering the general office is a wait- 
ing room or public space. It is separated from the 
general office by a large, high counter at one end of 
which is a gate. The rear of the counter should be 
fitted with pigeonholes and shelves for keeping office 
appliances, blanks, stationery, and other equipment. 
On top of the counter under a heavy glass plate there 
may be kept the school program and such other fre- 
quently used bulletins of information. The waiting 
room has a door to the main corridor and one to the 
main entrance. The general office should be equipped 
with the usual filing cabinets, bookcases, desks, and 
chairs. The public telephone, the master clock, and 
the school telephone exchange should be installed in 
the general office. Opening into the office is a door to 
the vault and record room. At one side of the office 
is a door to the principal's office. 

The Principal's Office. — The principal's office is lo- 
cated between the general office and the men teachers' 
room. There is a passage to both the general office and 
the men teachers' room from the principal's office, also 
an entrance from the main corridor to the principal's 
office. There is a lavatory and toilet opening off the 
principal's office, also a small cloak room. The furni- 
ture and equipment of the principal's office will be of 
good quality, quarter-sawed antique oak. The floor 
should be covered with plain, battleship linoleum. It 
will add to the attractiveness greatly, if it is covered 
with a good Wilton rug. 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



249 



The Men Teachers' Room. — The men teachers' room 
should be furnished with a table and chairs and pro- 
vided with enough steel lockers so that each teacher 
would have a full-sized locker.- Opening off from the 
room should be a toilet and lavatory. 

The Women Teachers' Room. — Across the lobby from 
the general office should be the women teachers' room. 
The floor should be covered with a good quality of 
linoleum. It should be furnished with chairs, a table, 
and a couch. On one side of the room there should be a 
number of steel lockers, at least one for each teacher. 



with numerous closets, vaults, and storerooms. Gen- 
erally there is an outer office or reception room, an 
office for a secretary or stenographer, and the prin- 
cipal's office. In many cases there is no direct passage 
from one office to the other. For economy of time and 
convenience there should be. 

The writer can surmise two good reasons for the ap- 
parent lack of good planning in the administrative offices 
of large high schools. First, the large, new school is the 
outgrowth of an older and smaller school. The prin- 
ciapl and faculty move from the old plant into the new. 



C O lb lb 1 DOIU- 




© JUSTWb CLOCK. 
D -SiCOX DAILY C LOCK. 

k public tlllphon; 

H P1UUTL, IKTUICOMAUKICATLNG PKOKI, 



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PUN OF PiiKClPACS & lUCHLIS SUITE TOIL A MtDIM SUB HIGH SCHOOL" 



• s c 1 
Fig. 217. 



The furnishings for this room should be left to the judg- 
ment of the women teachers. It should be made as 
cozy and comfortable as possible. Opening off the room 
there should be a set of toilets and lavatories. At one 
side of the room there is a door into the girls' rest room. 

The Girls' Rest Room. — The girls' rest room should be 
furnished with chairs, couches, blankets, pillows, and a 
" first-aid " outfit. In order to give as much privacy as 
possible it is desirable to have a screen between the 
entrance to the room and the main part of it. 

Administrative Offices in a Large High School. — A 
study of the plans of many large high school buildings 
of recent construction shows that there has been little 
attempt to centralize the administrative quarters. 
The usual plan indicates a suite of offices located on the 
first floor near the main entrance to the building. The 
suite consists of three or four adjacent offices, together 



In planning his quarters the principal thinks of the old 
accommodations rather than of the needs of the new. 
Second, it is hard to convince many school boards of the 
necessity of having a group of complete, contiguous ad- 
ministrative offices. Board members, too, are accus- 
tomed to think largely in terms of the small school. 
Sooner or later the principal finds his administrative 
problems growing both in number and complexity. 
He learns that he must have more assistants and that 
they must have suitable offices. Frequently these offices 
are located in widely separated parts of the building. 

For illustration let us take the Technical High School 
of Oakland, California. It grew out of the old Manual 
Training and Commercial High School, which had a 
normal enrollment of about six hundred pupils. When 
the faculty and pupils moved into the new plant the 
enrollment was slightly greater than twelve hundred. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Within less than four years the new high school 
has reached an enrollment of over two thousand. . 
In addition to this, during the past two years 
a continuation school 1 of more than two thou- 
sand adults has developed. Thus within a period 
of five years the school has grown in daily at- 
tendance from an enrollment of about six hun- 
dred to over four thousand pupils. 

When the Technical High School opened its 
doors in Jan., 1915, the administrative offices 
consisted of a waiting room, a secretary's office, 
a supply room, a bath room, a toilet and lava- 
tory, and the principal's office. That the offices 
were inadequate was evidenced by the fact that 
the two vice principals immediately sought 
offices outside of the administrative suite. 
These offices are far removed from the principal's 
and from each other. Much time is lost in 
walking back and forth for conferences, inter- 
views, and the transaction of the usual school 
business. 

The development of the continuation school 
required another suite of offices. These have 
been taken from space originally planned for 
the commercial department. They, too, are far 
removed from the other administrative offices. 

The need for a centralization of administra- 
tive offices in the large high school has convinced 
the writer that the study of the problem is 
well worth while. No fixed plan will be suitable 
for all buildings, Every building presents its 
own special problems. We should not blame 
the school architect for all the mistakes that 
have been made in the plans of our school 
buildings. The writer knows several buildings 
in which mistakes have been forced upon the 
architect against his own best judgment. 

After reviewing the plans of many modern 
high school buildings, we submit the following 
suggestive one. 

General Plan. — (See figure 218.) 

1. Registrar's office. 

2. Office for the principal of the day school. 

3. Office for the dean of girls. 

4. Office for the dean of boys. 

1 During the fall term, 1918, the enrollment of 
the continuation school was as follows : afternoon 
session (2 : 15 to 4 : 40) 965 ; .evening session (7:15 
to 9 : 30) 3610; total enrollment, 4575. Of this 
number many attended only two or three sessions 
a week, thus giving a daily attendance of about 
2000 for the continuation school. This was ex- 
clusive of the regular day school attendance, 
which was over 2000. 



THE ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES IN PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



251 



5. Office for the principal of the continuation school. 

6. Attendance office. 

7. Offices for heads of departments. 

Registrar's Office. — The registrar's office should be 
on the first floor near the main entrance of the high 
school building. It should be a large,- well-lighted, 
well-ventilated office. It should be separated from the 
public space by a high, wide counter. The rear of the 
counter should be fitted with cabinets for keeping blanks, 
office appliances, and supplies. On top of the counter, at 
either end, there should be a plate glass cover under 
which could be found the programs of the day and of 
the continuation school, also plans of the building and 
such other information as is most frequently needed. 

At one end of the office there should be a vault for 
keeping money, permanent school records, and other valu- 
ables. The office should be equipped with substantial 
desks, chairs, and filing cases, preferably of quarter-sawed, 
antique oak. Here, also, should be installed the master 
clock, public telephone, and electric buzzers. 

In the space reserved for the public outside of the 
registrar's office, there should be two public telephone 
booths. These should contain local and long distance 
pay telephones available for pupils and patrons. On 
the other side of the public space a time recorder should 
be installed for the use of the day and continuation 
school teachers and employees. Individual cards 
should be placed in a cabinet so that at any time, day or 
evening, the registrar could see at a glance whether 
teachers have reported in or out. 

At the right of the public space is a door opening into a 
waiting room off the continuation school principal's 
office. This door is under the control of the secretary 
of the continuation school. Immediately to the right 
of the registrar's office is a private entrance to the con- 
tinuation school principal's office. There is, also, an exit 
from the continuation school office to the main entrance. 

Principal's Office.- — Experience has shown that in a 
large, growing high school the main corridor on the 
first floor is nearly always crowded when classes are pass- 
ing. School officials, parents, and visitors find it very 
difficult to go from one part of the building to another 
at such times. In order to obviate this difficulty we have 
planned an inner passage connecting the offices of the 
registrar, dean of boys, principal's secretary, principal, 
and dean of girls. To the left of the principal's office 
is a small consulting room. Just off from the consult- 
ing room is the office of the dean of girls. To the right 
of the principal's office is the office of the secretary. 
The plan shows an outer waiting room to the secretary's 
office. The two are separated by a high, wide counter, 
at one end of which is a gate. The inside of the counter 
is fitted with ample shelves and cabinets for keeping 



stationery and school supplies. At one end the top 
of the counter is covered with heavy plate glass. Under 
this may be kept the daily program of the school. The 
secretary controls the entrance to the principal's office 
on one side and to the dean of the boys on the other. 

Office of the Dean of Girls. — ■ The dean of girls has 
access to the consulting room opening at the right 
between her office and the principal's. On the left 
there is an entrance to the girls' rest room. It is ad- 
visable that the dean of girls should keep in touch with 
the girls' rest room. The latter place is sometimes abused 
by lazy or shiftless pupils, and it is highly desirable 
that the use of the room be restricted to those girls who 
are assigned by the dean. 

Office of the Dean of Boys. — This office is located 
between the offices of the registrar and secretary. It 
is easy to pass through the waiting room of the secre- 
tary's office to the principal's office or to the registrar's 
immediately adjacent. The whole plan shows a fairly 
complete centralization of the administrative quarters. 
While the plan may seem elaborate, it really requires 
no more space than is usually found in widely separated 
quarters. 

5. Office of the Continuation Principal. — The con- 
tinuation school principal usually finds himself an un- 
welcome guest. In some schools his office is in a corner 
of the day school principal's office. This arrangement 
is neither satisfactory nor convenient. Furthermore, if 
the continuation school is to be conducted in the after- 
noon as well as in the evening, the continuation school 
principal should have his own quarters. The plan 
herewith presented (figure 218) provided such accommo- 
dations. It will be noted that the registrar's office is 
comparatively large. It was made so to accommodate 
the crowding which always occurs at the organization 
of the school term. By having one registrar's office 
for both day and continuation school there is a cen- 
tralizing of information, of reports, and of records. 
Besides there is ample room for both day and continua- 
tion pupils. The office of the continuation school prin- 
cipal should be equipped with convenient filing cabi- 
nets and office appliances. 

Adjoining the continuation school principal's office 
is a waiting room which may be used by prospective 
students and continuation school teachers. 

6. An Attendance Office. — -One of the big problems 
in a large high school is that of attendance. In some 
schools the attendance is handled by the dean of girls 
and dean of boys respectively. There are good reasons 
for having the attendance under the immediate super- 
vision of these two administrative offices, but in the 
largest schools it would seem advisable to have a sepa- 
rate office for checking the attendance. 



252 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



In the opinion of the writer the attendance office 
should be near the administrative quarters, located on 
the first floor not far removed from the locker rooms. 
One office properly equipped and furnished would be 
adequate for taking charge of the entire attendance 
problem. The usual filing devices and office fixtures 
should be installed. 

7. Offices for Heads of Departments. — A study 
of the plans for large high school buildings does not 
always indicate the offices that are available for heads 
of departments and conference committees. The ex- 
perience of school men has been that there are too few 



offices in the large high school. There ought to be at 
least one office for each five teachers. Since the large 
high school is coming to have continuous sessions, it is 
important that teachers have quarters where they may 
retire to plan their work and have conferences with each 
other, with parents, and with pupils. Not only should 
the heads of departments have good, well equipped 
offices, but there should be enough other offices for the 
different groups of teachers. 

Experience has shown that the offices should never 
be placed inside of classrooms, but should have an 
entrance directly from the corridor. 



CHAPTER XII 



THE CLASSROOM 

By John J. Donovan, Architect, A.I.A. 

I. General Remarks. II. Size of Elementary Classrooms, (i) Width of Aisles. (2) Length and Width of Classrooms. (3) Floor 
Areas. (4) Chicago Board of Education Plan. (5) New York Board of Education Plan. III. Age of Pupils. IV. Size of 
Classroom Furniture. V. Size of High School Classrooms. (1) Boston High School Classrooms. (2) Ceiling Heights. (3) Further 
Study of the Plan. VI. Natural Lighting of Classrooms. (1) Overhead Lighting. (2) Glass Area. (3) Height of Window Stools. 
VII. Wardrobes. VIII. Blackboards. (1) Stock Sizes of Slate. (2) Heights of Chalk-Rails. (3) Tacking Strips. (4) Reach of 
Pupils. IX. General Notes. (1) Floors. (2) Trim. (3) Doors. (4) Transoms. (5) Plaster. (6) Canvas. (7) Painting. 
X. Floor Treatment. (1) Floor Oiling. (2) Floor Dressings. (3) Linoleum. (4) Linseed Oil and Turpentine. XL Location of 
Air Registers. XH. Windows. (1) Shades. (2) Venetian Blinds. 



That the classroom is the fundamental unit of the 
school organization is a truth that will bear constant 
repetition. And it is because of this vital fact that 
definite and detailed information in text and drawings 
should fully cover the latitude permissible in planning 
the classroom. In examining the plans herein presented, 
it will become obvious that, before establishing the 
size of the room, it is necessary to know the grade and 
maximum number of pupils that will occupy the room, 
and the type and size of the furniture. There are other 
questions which call for careful consideration and clear 
judgment, and in any discussion they are well worth 
attention before settling down to the final composition 
of the plan of the whole, which necessarily will include 
other units besides classrooms. Consequently, this 
chapter will treat on the subjects which pertain not 
only to the design, but also the general appointments 
and the hygiene of the room, such as the lighting, black- 
boards, floors, painting, etc., etc. 

Size of Elementary Classrooms. — The width of the 
classroom is a very important factor in the plan of the 
school. Generally the number of rows of seats across 
the room is not less than five. But there are times 
when it is advantageous for other rooms, such as labora- 
tories, that the classroom should have a width adequate 
for six rows. In a high school the wider room gives a 
more flexible arrangement for equipment in rooms 
above and below the classroom, or on the same side of the 
corridor. Many favor the wider classroom as the length 
of the room is thereby shortened, and it is easier for both 
teacher and pupils to hear and talk, and there is less eye 
strain to pupils occupying rear seats in reading matter 
on the front blackboard. On the other hand, the 



narrower room requires smaller structural spans and 
consequently is of less expensive construction. The 
ceiling heights also may be less for the narrower room. 
The length of the building, however, is reduced by the 
use of the wider classroom, provided of course the same 
number of pupils occupy the rooms of the five and the 
six rows. 

Width of Aisles. — After determining upon the num- 
ber of pupils and the size of the furniture, the width 
of the side, rear and inner aisles should be next con- 
sidered. From the Boston data (figs. 225, 226, 227, 228, 
and 229) it will be noticed that the window aisle is 24" 
wide for all classrooms, except for the larger high school 
rooms, where it is 28" wide. The rear aisles vary from 
36" to 30" and the inner aisles for grades I to VIII are 
16" and 15^", and in the high school grades 18", while 
the wall aisles opposite the windows range from 5' 4" for 
the lowest grades to 3' o\" for the higher elementary 
grades and 3' 6" for high schools. There is quite a 
variation in widths of wall aisles in the Boston seating 
arrangement, due to the uniform size of the classrooms 
for all elementary grades. 

Whenever blackboards are used at the side and rear 
of the room, and that is the general practice, it is well 
to allow not less than 2' 8" for width of space between 
the wall and the back of the seats, and 3' o" for the 
wall aisles, as the latter is necessary for the free circula- 
tion of pupils. The space of 8' o" is none too large for 
clearance between the front row of desks and the front 
wall, especially when the pupils pass in front of the 
teacher's desk on their way to the wardrobe. Actual 
investigation convinces the writer that inner aisles 
should not be less than 1' 6" in width. 



2 54 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Length and Width of Classroom. — Assuming the 
rear aisle is 2' 8" wide and the distance between the 
front row of seats and the front wall is 8' o" , the length 
of the room is determined by the number of seats to 
each row, which brings up the question of the number 
of pupils to a room. The writer has yet to meet a teacher 
who believes that the number should exceed forty, for 
reasons too numerous to enter into here except the very 



good reason that it is not fair to either child or teacher 
in receiving and giving instructions. Therefore, with 
forty or forty-two as the number to be considered, we 
may say that by establishing the length and width for 
the sixth grade for schools below the junior high, all 
lower grades will have plenty of room to spare. 

The distance from back to back in the Boston seating 
arrangement for the 6th grade is 2' 5I", while the market 




M 






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•TABU Of Sill S (SJUASUUAUNTS O? SCRGDl DESKS 


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IV-V-VI 


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WIDTH -Or-ILOOI A- 


l&'Jo 


iq'.cf 


2'l'-0" 


UKGTH-OMICM "B- 


ir-A" 


30-0" 


31'- 4" 


distance, ua ro uac- 


2-r ■ 


Z'-5"> 


Z- 7" - 


DISTANCE, ACROSS D- 


r-c" i 


\'-r ; 


2*-0" 


size, or DESK 


1Z"J 16" 


15" X 21" 


IG'724" 


HEIGHT OF DISK 


21" T0 24" 


23" TO 2a" 


2G>" T °3I" 


AHa-UXQUIHID-HDIlGMDIS 


505.G SQ.TT. 


5^2.5 SQ.TT. 


£5^35Q.n. 


AULA PI1 TUSON 


1Z.33 - - 


14.45 " " 


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THE CLASSROOM 



255 



sizes range from 2V to 2'$". Assume the distance 
to be 2 / 5 // for a five-row room, then a room of forty seats 
will require a length of 30V and a six-row room of 
forty-two pupils will require a length of 2"]' 7". The 
widths would be 10/9" an d 2 i'o" respectively. (See Fig- 
ures 219 and 220.) For grades VII and VIII (Figures 219 
and 220) with forty and forty- two seats to the five- and 
six-row rooms, respectively, and distance 
from back to back 2 ,f ]" , the lengths of 
these upper grade classrooms would be 
31V' and 28V, while the widths would 
be 2i'o" and 24/6" '. 

Figures 221 and 222 illustrate two 
other types of classrooms with the ward- 
robes at the side and end, respectively, 
and both are used very much in the 
same way. Figure 222 is known as the 
" Chicago " type and like Figure 221 
is favored by many architects of high 
standing in the field of school architec- 
ture. The writer favors the type with 
the wardrobe at the end of the room as 
in Figure 219, because it is possible to 
ventilate directly to the open air through 
the window, and what is equally im- 
portant, if not more so, is the possibility 
of having sunshine fall within the ward- 
robe some time during the day, provid- 
ing, of course, the classroom is not 
facing the north. 

Floor Areas. — It may be of interest 
to note the floor areas, including ward- 
robes, of all three schemes, using the 
measurements for grades VII and VIII 
of desks and aisles common to all except 
that the side wall aisle of Figure 221 is 
4/0" wide instead of 3' o" , in order to 
allow more freedom in front of the ward- 
robe. The following are the areas : 

Fig. 219. 21' o"Xs6' 4" = 762.3 square feet. 

Fig. 220. 24' 6"X3-i' 4" = 766.8 square feet. 

Fig. 221. 21' o"X34' o" = 714 square feet. 

The " Chicago " type, Figure 222, is 48.3 square feet 
less than that of Figure 219 and 32.8 square feet less than 
that of Figure 221. Notwithstanding this difference I 
believe the value of the sunlight compensates for the 
increased floor area of Figure 219. While calling atten- 
tion to flo'or areas including wardrobes it is interesting to 
observe that the total floor area of the six-row classroom, 
Figure 220, is 826.87 square feet, or 64.57 square feet, 
greater than that of Figure 219, the five-row room. This 
difference is diminished if 32.76 square feet, the area 
occupied by the two additional pupils, is deducted. 



Chicago Board of Education Plan. — Figure 223 shows 
the seating plan of classrooms for various size desks 
in the elementary grades as laid out by Mr. A. F. Hus- 
sander, Architect for the Chicago Board of Education. 
They are similar to Figure 221 and have the advantage 
of giving more blackboard space back of the teacher's 
desk. 




•TABLE, Or SIZES & JUASU1U MUTS OF SCHOOL DISKS 


GHAD£S 


I I I 


rv v vi 


VII VIII- 


WIDTH- OF -HOOAl A 


21'- G" 


23-0" 


24- 6" 


L0GTH-OMIOOAI B 


25-3" 


27-7" 


2&'-r 


DISTANCr,-BACK re Ma C 


z-r . 


2'- 5" 


2-7" 


DISTANCE ACllOSS D 


r-G" 


l'-q" 


2-0" 


SIZE, or DESK 


12"" 16" 


15"* zr 


16"* 24" 


HEIGHT Or DtSK. 


21" T0 24" 


23" TO 25" 


26"™ 31' 


kUK-UOVMMOl-GUKS 


542.87 sqrr 


£34.34 SQfl 


704.37 SQ.FT. 


A1UA JUL ?EHSOH 


12.G2 ■ • 


14.75 ■ • 


16.36 ■• - 



New York Board of Education Plan. — Figure 224 
illustrates the elementary school classroom floor plans 
as planned by Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect for the 
New York City Board of Education. The capacities 
are as follows : 

48 seats and desks in grades i-A to 4-B, inclusive 
46 seats and desks in grades 5-A to 6-B, inclusive. 
42 seats and desks in grades 7-A to 8-B or a-B, inclusive. 

Age of Pupils. — The following information on this 
subject may be useful : 



256 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




BLACKBOARD 





CLASS 


X.QON1 






















2- ft 





BLACKBOARD 




4-0 PUPILS 

AL1L UN.DIIL i»001tS -SAMt TO SLIDi UP 



ril£,SH AIR SUPPLY 



:illire WArLDILOB£, 




■?LAH or TIVL RjOwYlLMNTAW GUdi C&J13$ ROOM - 



•TA3LE Of SIZES <& JWEASUHEMENTS OF SCHOOL DE,$KS° 


GHADES 


I II III 


IV V VI 


VII VIII 


WIDTH OF lOOM A 


lq'-G" 


20'- r 


22'- 0" 


length or ICOHi B 


27-4" 


30'- O" 


31-4" 


DISTANCE MCK TO MCKC 


2'-l" - 


Z'-5" 


2-7" 


DISTANCE ACHOSS D 


1-6" 


r-r 


Z'-O" 


SIZE or DESK 


IZ" X 18" 


I5" X Z1" 


IG"*24" 


HEIGHT or DESJC 


21" TO 24" 


23" to 23- 


ZG" T °3!" 


A HE A HOUIKD rOfcGMDIS 


532.^3 SQjT. 


622.5 SQ.FT. 


£8i2<*sa.rr. 


AIL A TEX TLHSO.N 


12.96 - - 


•15.16 - - 


ig.61 ■ - 



YTLL'M Alfe SUPPLY 



/ <f 



H3 



BOAO 



ELEVATION Of WALDLOBL SIDL 



THE CLASSROOM 





"g 






•w. 


K 


B O W S 








a 
















't 






6, 

















40 PUPUS ' 



UN or nvr. now iumjtatly ghadi 




ASS JIQQJA 



TA^LL > OK SIZES & M£ASUJUM£JTS Of SCHOOL DISKS 


G1UD£,S 


I H I 


IV V VI 


VII VIIL 


width- or aooiit a 


16'- G" 


w-r 


2l'-0" 


LEJGTH-OMlOOM. B 


27-4" 


30'-0" 


3I--4" 


DISTAJJCX-MGK TO BACK C 


2-1" 


2-5" 


2-7" 


DISTANCE ACLDSS D 


1- G" 


r- q" 


2-0" 


size or dlsic 


12" x 16" 


15" x 21" 


1G" x 24" 


HEIGHT Or DtSIC 


zr T0 24" 


23" T0 26" 


2G" T °31" 


AHA- TUQUIRLD-FOL GMDtS 


505.6 SQ.rr. 


5^2.5 sq.rr. 


G57.q3 5Q.ri. 


AUA PEL PELSOU 


12.33 ■ " 


14.45 ■ 


1G.04 ■ " 




' ELEVATION Or WAKD1QBL INI) 




o o 5 _r 



























59 












2 


fO 




Is 




^ r 

« 1 














N II 
* II 

»— i q 
^o | 

uJ 1 

<=^ <* 1 






Q 








b 


u 














5 iia 

^ II * 
II 
















>■-, 












, 














I 




- 










II 




.013 


^-: 


.?-.; 




3-,' 


21 


..9-.fr 1 
1 
1 

r 


lew 

1 

1 

■t 








JL 




^ 


<n 










1 a 


la. 











































b 








$ 












o 























o 1 1 

>- 1 1 

OO □ 
Q rl 

O || 

o 1! i 

1 1 & 












„c 


>-.tc 












1 1 


.01:3 


8:1 


3:1 


.9.1 














.9:: 


.9:1 


„9-,e | 

5 


j..o-.r 


| 


1 

S 








s 










_ a 



^ . 
o 



t3 



THE CLASSROOM 



C O It It 1 D lb 




48 • S$ATS & DtSKS IK GRADES FKOM. 

1A-TO-4B- INaUSIVi, 
4<S- 5.LAT5 & DISKS IK GJIADI.S fJIDM. 

5A°70-&3° INGLUSlVf, 
42 • SLATS & DISKS IN" GIUDI.S HOM. 

7 A -TO- 63 OR 9B IKCLVSAM, • 
CAB .ft 'SUPPLY CAB i JILT 
T.i, <Ti,ACHU£S Loacyi 
3.C -.BOOK CABiilLI 
IS -LlBHAftY 300KCASE, ■ 



-PLAN OF CUSSLOOiyi WITH wahdhqbi at RIAL 




PLAN or GLASSItOOA WITH WARJHQ31 AT SIDL 



• KAI.V 

T A KU r HOI JHAW1JJG5 Of T V S> I 1 C SCHOOl, flO 2q 

- AIL. C- .P. J. 5 H YP1.IL AHCH1UCT- 



260 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Kindergarten : 

entering age 5, completing age 6. 
Elementary School: 

Grade No. 1 : entering age 6, completing age 7. 

Grade No. 2 : entering age 7 to 7I, completing age 8 to 85. 

Grade No. 3 : entering age 8 to 85, completing age 9 to 95. 

Grade No. 4: entering age 9 to 10, completing age 10 to 11. 

Grade No. 5 : entering age 10 to n, completing age n to 12. 

Grade No. 6: entering age n to 12, completing age 12 to 13. 
Intermediate or Junior High School : 

Grade No. 7 : entering age 12 to 13, completing age 13 to 14. 

Grade No. 8: entering age 13 to 14, completing age 14 to 15. 

Grade No. 9 : entering age 14 to 15, completing age 16 to 17. 
Senior High School: 

Grade No. 10: entering age 14J to 17, completing age 15^ to 18. 

Grade No. n : entering age 16 to 18, completing age 17 to 19. 

Grade No. 12 : entering age 17 to 19, completing age 18 to 20. 

Size of Classroom Furniture. — The following table 
of sizes for school desks has been made up from a promi- 
nent manufacturer's catalogue (all dimensions are in 
inches) : 



Size numbers . . . 
Length of desk top . 
Width of top . . . 
Height of top . . . 
Height of seat . . 
Age of pupils (years) 



! 


2 


3 


23? 


232 


20^ 


16 


l6 


M 


30 


28£ 


26£ 


I7l 


16 


14* 


17 


14 


11 



Size of High School Classrooms. — The principles to 
be observed in planning the high school classroom are 
practically the same as for the elementary school. The 
main exception is that, in the high school, locker rooms 
for clothing and books are located in other parts of the 
building and the wardrobe of the elementary school 
disappears. The blackboards are of different heights, 
and the bookcase, with its dictionary, is used more by 
the students ; the hanging rail above the blackboard is 
omitted; and there should be consideration given to 
the circulation if movable furniture is used. 

In establishing the size of classrooms for a high school 
a careful survey ought to be made of the enrollment for 
instruction in the different subjects of the curriculum. 
A capable superintendent or principal should be the 
master of this situation, for wasteful space or cramped 
rooms may result from a plan in which all the classrooms 
are of the same size. For example, the first and second 
year classes are, as a general rule, much larger than the 
third and fourth year classes, and some subjects of all 
years have larger attendance than others. Subjects 
like mathematics, modern languages, and particularly 
the dead languages, Greek and Latin, most likely have 
a smaller attendance than subjects like history, English, 
or similar subjects which are mostly lecture and outside 
reading courses. 

Very often folding doors and rolling curtain partitions 
are used as partitions separating rooms, so that two or 
more of the classrooms may be thrown together. It is 
easier to do this with movable chairs than with the 



hxed desk and seat. Although it is not always con- 
venient to join rooms like this, it is much better than to 
be unable to enlarge classrooms quickly. A good plan 
is to have all heating and ventilating ducts, plumbing 
pipes, electrical conduits, and such work installed in 
the corridor walls or extend along and furred in the 
corridor ceilings, and have the floors supported by the 
corridor partitions only, so that dividing or cross parti- 
tions may be moved and reset as often as the occasion 
warrants. Very little expense or damage is incurred 
if the partitions alone have to be moved. 

Boston High School Classrooms. — Figures 228 and 229 
show the seating arrangement for high school classrooms 
as adopted by the Boston School Commission for classes 
of eighty and forty-two desks. Rooms are also laid 
out to accommodate sixty and thirty-six, while recitation 
rooms 26' o"X 16' o" are used as classrooms with double 
desks providing seats for about thirty pupils. The 
natural lighting of the larger rooms is a special problem 
and should be considered as such. Figure 230 shows a 
seating arrangement for junior and senior high schools 
often used by the writer, which has been found to work 
out quite satisfactorily. 

Ceiling Height. — After having settled upon the 
horizontal dimensions of the room the height of ceiling 
from floor should receive careful consideration for proper 
lighting and ventilation. The first step is to investigate 
if near-by building or buildings on the opposite side 
of the street are of such a height as to prevent direct 
rays of sky light from entering at the sill line of the 
window of the classroom on the lowest floor at an angle 
not greater than 27 degrees with the horizontal. If the 
street is too narrow or the adjacent buildings too high 
then the school building must be set far enough back 
from the street to correct this. At this point it is evident 
that the selection of the site is no small matter. 

Assuming that the site is large enough to locate the 
building as desired the height of ceiling from floor 
should be determined by the amount of direct light 
falling upon the row of desks most removed from the 
windows. 

The rule that the classroom should not be wider 
than twice the height of the window head from the 
floor and that the rays of light be direct sky light, 
necessitates the placing of the building so that the 
height of the top of structures opposite from the sill line 
of the lowest classrooms will not be greater than one-half 
the distance between both buildings. Figure 233 illus- 
trates this principle, and except in cities like New York, 
with an " East Side " where the streets are narrow, it 
is not difficult to obtain the direct sky rays. This rule 
will indicate how close walls of courts or yards may be 
without jeopardizing the lighting of the rooms. 



THE CLASSROOM 



261 







;o 


WINDOWS-' 








1 1 [Ml 1 1 1 1 1 






■4 






111 1 












3-0" 1 2-1" |2.-l" 1 : ! I i 


11- 5" 










2q'-o~ 






"0 


Mill II 1 






'<n 






1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 








Vs 








! 1 '<o 


Mill 






_^ 









44 • 3 £. S JCS 



GMD^S l&I 1Z" X 1S" Z4£' MCK TO MCK 
GUDt I ' • - : 25" ■ 













44 BUSKS 




Fic 


• 225. 






2-&" 




*o 


V1N20> 


VS.'" 










1 v 




1 1 1 






*i 










1 1 1 












2-52' 




1 | 














" 




1 1 






'0 




2<?'-0" 












a 




II M 


















1' 1 






b2 










|:t 




1 1 






'0 








GIUDE, IV 15"*£0i" Z<UCU°UCK 

V 15" x 21" Z L 4i° ■ 

VI 15"* 21" Z'-5i" ■' 





b 


Wl N COWS--' 






| | | ! f[ | | ! ! 


-# 


I III! 






3-D" J 2-75" | 2-75" I ! ! 1 Z'-'7£ I 


7-72" 


1 "I 1 1 1 1 1 | 




2<r-o" 












II Ml II II 










! 1 ! l 




* 




5 


1 ■ I 




"0 









G1UD£, VII 16'*23" 2'-7"MCK TO MCK 
VIII l£ x 23i' Z-7i" ■ 
CEJUNG HEIGHT 1Z L 0" 
A HE A GC7 SQ.FT. 
ALLOWS 14.61 - - Pf.lL POISON 

voLUiii, &004. cu.rr. 

ALLOWS 17r.64 - ■ PtLTttSOK 



44 • DI.SKS • 



262 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





















-51 


] | 






jo 


























































&'-3" 


























TtACHl 


lb 






"<0 




<f> 










43'-0" 
















































l j l l 








~l 












6 




















80 DE.SKS 









HIGH S CH QQLS 

SIZE, OF DUKS 20" X 2fc" 

5ACK. TO -BACK 3'-li" 

























^ 
















s 




















3-0" 


2>q" 






*,■ 


q-.q- 
















"0 




32'- O" 










































































£ 


















is 

<0 


42 DJSKS 









AHA 1447.36 SQJT. 
ALLOWS 17.86 ■ ■ Uh PtiSON 
VOLUME, 173G&.5G CU.TT. 
ALLOWS 214.42 ■ " PELPLLSOK 



CEILING 12-0" HIGH 



A HI, A 832 SO. FT. 
ALLOVS 1934 - -PLLPaSOK 
VOLUli; W4 CU.FT. 
ALLOWS 232.18 ■ - PEL POSOJf 



•HIGH 


5 C H O O L 5 


5 1 z £, or 

SACK TO 


DISKS 20" x 2fc- 
£> A C K 2'-q" 






s 


c a l;- 

Fig. 229. 



THE CLASSROOM 



263 



Figures 234 and 235 demonstrate the rule on a larger 
scale, and the direction of the rays of light within the 
classroom. Figure 235 is a section of the upper grade 
classrooms (VII, VIII, and High Schools) , while Figure 234 
is a section of the classrooms of grades I to VI inclusive. 
Taking Figure 235 first, it should be noted that the desks 
range from 2V to 2'f in height, the width of desks 
is assumed at 2V, the window aisle is 2V, the aisles 
between desks are i'6", and the wall aisles opposite 
the windows are 3V. Also the dotted line X-X' is the 
inner wall line for a room of five rows, and Y-Y' the wall 
line for a room of six rows. It can be- seen that for a 
ceiling height of 12V the ray C from the lintel of ceiling 
height 12V falls beyond one-fourth of the high desk 
of the fifth row, and that ray F from the lintel of ceiling 
height i3 / 6 // just intersects the corner of the larger 
desk of the sixth row. The window lintels are assumed 
to be 6" below the ceilings. It should be noted that the 
distance from the outside wall of the innermost rows 
of desks receiving proper light in each case is approxi- 
mately one and one-half times the height of the window 
head from the floor. Therefore, it may be stated as a 
general rule by which to establish the arrangement of 
the seating and width of the room for good lighting, that 
no desk should be further removed from the source of 
light than one and one-half times the height of the 
window head from the floor. 

From Figure 235 the deduction may be made that for 
a room of five rows in width a ceiling height of i2 , o ,/ is 
sufficient, and for a room of six rows the height should 
■ be i3'6" and never less than 13V. In Figure 234, with 
the desks i'c/' in width, which is the market size for 
children of the sixth grade, and 2V the height of the 
high desk for this grade, the lighting conditions are still 
more favorable. For a room of five rows it would be 
favorable to lower the ceiling to even n'o", although 
this would necessitate extending the horizontal length 
of the windows to bring the glass area up to 20 per cent 
of the floor area, and would reduce the volume of space 
in the room. However, this would be drawing too fine 
a line ; it is mentioned only to demonstrate further the 
lighting problem. 

Further Study of the Plan. — A final word regarding 
the study of the plan of the classrooms would not be 
amiss. The data presented are suggested with a desire 
to provide comfortable seating and aisles for easy cir- 
culation of pupils, as well as to indicate where wise 
economies may be exercised in planning school build- 
ings. Classrooms too large for the number of pupils to 
be accommodated are not only a financial and material 
waste, but, worse yet, they are a temptation to over- 
crowd such rooms just as soon as the slightest conges- 



tion develops in the community. This leads to ineffi- 
ciency on the part of the teaching and cuts down on 
the individual instruction to the pupil. On the other 
hand there is a danger of attempting too great economy, 
and causing congestion and discomfort. The school is 
developing and changing so rapidly to meet new and 
added requirements that it behooves all who have to do 
with the housing of it to study each problem by itself, 
using such data as are presented here, simply as a means 
of solving the problem. Furthermore, when the school 
is used by continuation and evening classes the physical 
difference between high school students and adults 
requires consideration and study in order that the plant 
and its equipment may be flexible to meet the various 
requirements. Fixed and hard rules, however good and 
economical, often lead to permanent difficulties. The 
time may not be far removed when classrooms in ele- 
mentary grades will vary in size to accommodate from as 
few as fifteen seats to as many as forty. Elastic classi- 
fication will shorten the years of attendance of the 
mentally bright, and advance the slow child by more 
individual instruction, thereby moderating the financial 
burden of the state and giving greater opportunity 
to the child for advancement in educational work as 
well as development of its mental capacity. 

If the school grades of cities are of the 6-2-4, 6-3-3 or 
6-6 groups instead of the prevailing 8-4 plan, it is clear 
that the elementary classroom may be reduced in floor 
area. When housing the eight grades under one roof, 
it is necessary to make the width of the classroom of the 
size to accommodate the larger children, unless we resort to 
unsymmetrical plans which would discount in a measure 
any such economy in the elementary schools, since 
it costs more to build irregular-shaped buildings. A 
study of the classrooms of the Boston and Chicago 
groups discloses the fact that there is considerable unused 
space in the lower grades, due to the use of a uniform 
size for all elementary grades. This may be lessened if 
the width of rooms for the sixth grade is taken as the 
width for all grades below the sixth, and they are housed 
apart from the upper grades. 

Natural Lighting of Classrooms. — The most important 
factor in the plan of a school is natural lighting. Arti- 
ficial lighting is a matter of good illuminating engineer- 
ing, but good natural lighting requires careful considera- 
tion in both plan and elevation with regard to the points 
of the compass and the quantity and quality of the light. 
Consequently the selection of the site and the location 
of the building are of paramount importance, for poor 
judgment in either case will make it difficult to favor- 
ably orientate classrooms and often will necessitate 
juggling and misplacing of rooms in order to overcome 
obstacles springing from the choice of an unsuitable site. 



264 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Range of seasonal temperature and geographic locality 
are factors which largely determine the orientation of 
the classrooms. It is unwise to lay down hard and fast 
rules for all sections of a country as large as the United 




•TAftiX Or SlZlS & MEASUlLLALLflTS- 


NO. 07 UPWS 


5-WHS WID£, 


6UMSm% 


WIDTH OF ROOM. 


21-10" 


25'- 6" 


luqtr or lOOJt- 


2(3'- &" 


2£- 6" 


DI5TANCI SACK T0 MCX 


Z'- & 


2'-6" 


DISTANCE ACItOSS 


2-2" 


2-2" 


size,' or DISH 


1G" TO I6'X2G" 


IG" TO 1S"X2G" 


HLIGHT OF DISK 


2'- 6" 


2'- 8" 


rux)X ami ujjpuintD 


561.98 SQ.TL 


67<?.85 SQ.TT. 


aiu PtL Ptisow 


18.77 ■ " 


18.37 • • 



Fig. 230. 

States, for what is desirable in the New England and 
the Eastern states might prove severe for Southern and 
Western states, especially in many sections of these 
states where the range of temperature is high. Generally 
where high temperatures are not of long duration east 
and west lighting are most favorable for classrooms. 



In communities where the opposite is true the class- 
rooms should be favored with east light, and to obtain 
economy it is sometimes necessary to resort to lighting 
from the north. This, however, should be a last resort, 
for a classroom which does not receive 
sunlight at some time during the day is 
deprived of a natural hygienic cleansing, 
and a cheerfulness which inevitably 
affects the health and happiness of 
pupils and the teacher. In many lo- 
calities close to the oceans southern ex- 
posures are not harmful, but as a rule 
they should be avoided, for they require 
drawn shades for so long a period to 
shut out the glare of the sun as to de- 
prive the room of the proper amount of 
light. This is just as bad as though 
the glass area was too small. 

Overhead Lighting. — Overhead light- 
ing for classrooms is adopted by some 
architects, but while it has the advan- 
tage of giving a uniform distribution, 
the writer cannot see any really good 
reason to recommend it, because of the 
confining impression created by the four 
walls extending to the ceiling with no 
outlook. Such lighting is appropriate 
for art rooms, shops, or operating rooms 
in hospitals, where moving about is 
permitted and when the steady blue 
sky light casts the desirable shades and 
shadows, but to continually confine chil- 
dren to such rooms seems like fitting 
them mentally to occupy cells. 

Glass Area. — ■ The right amount of 
glass area for a classroom likewise is 
dependent upon the locality and the 
orientation of the room. Classrooms 
facing the north should have a greater 
lighting surface than those having other 
exposures, and schools in communities 
that experience a preponderance of 
cloudy and foggy weather require more 
light than those that have an intense 
sunlight. The common practice is to 
allow 25 per cent of the floor area for 
masonry openings, which will give a 
trifle more than a 20 per cent equivalent in glass 
area. This should be closely followed, although in in- 
terior cities where the sunlight is quite intense, class- 
rooms have been found to be fairly well lighted with 
as small a glass area as 16 per cent. This, however, 
is bordering too closely on the danger of underlighting. 



THE CLASSROOM 




'SIDE ELEVATION TQWA1U) EXTIXIOIL' 




•5 IDE ELEVATION TQWAILD COTULIDOL- 




-ELEVATION OE HEME WAEL ; 




^^ '-X.xhausi Alii- ukdlildcdiis^ 

•ELLVATIQK Of TEACHE1S £Q> 



2>« iUACKJbOAIU) ?■ PL,ASTI<1\_, 

C^CANVAS V ' WOOD TAMILS 




W A O ILOSI, 

•ELEVATION TOWATID CLASS HOOI- 




•WAOB.OBI,- I I 

•UtVATIOfl AWAY fllQ/A CLASS IKDiO 



LOXLIOL • ELEVATIQKS or CLASS 1QO A ilG. 



S C A L t, ■ 
Fig. 231. 



266 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Many states provide by statute for 20 per cent of glass 
area, and it should be followed, or increased whenever 
the climatic conditions require an increased area for good 
lighting. 

One of the difficulties encountered by the architect 
in designing the exterior of a school building is the 
repetition of groups of windows of similar forms, which 
gives an impression of monotony. Nevertheless it is 
mandatory that the fenestration of classrooms conform 
to the physical requirements and that the rules govern- 
ing these requirements be followed. It is unfortunate 
if the exterior design is unsightly, due to unskilled han- 
dling of windows ; on the other hand, next to structural 



safety the proper lighting takes precedence over every- 
thing else. Furthermore, the vertical divisions or 
mullions and the horizontal divisions or transom bars 
should be as small as good construction will permit. 
By the use of steel sash both divisions are reduced to the 
minimum; but such sash are expensive. The transom 
bar is not necessary, for the double-hung and the hori- 
zontal casement sashes (Figures 236 and 237) may extend 
from stool to head without interruption except at the 
meeting rails. 

Height of Window Stools. — Educators differ as to the 
ideal height of window stools, but the greater number 
believe that the height should not be less than 2'6" 




H- 



THE CLASSROOM 



267 



and not more than 3' 6". If lower than 2' 6", glaring 
reflected light from the ground and surrounding objects 
will shine directly into the eyes of the pupils sitting 
near the windows, which is extremely harmful as well 
as annoying. If the window stool is higher than 3' 6", 
it is difficult for the child to look out for a momentary 
restful change, and it is on this point that educators 
disagree. Some contend that distraction results from 
low . window stools. A large majority of educators, 
however, favor giving the child the same opportunity 
as is enjoyed by the teacher. But one of the deter- 
mining factors regarding this point is the requirement of 



classroom, and the advantage to good lighting gained by 
it compensates but little for the psychologically bad 
effect upon both community and student caused by 
warped exteriors. After all, the precepts conducive 
to good natural lighting are left-hand unilateral light, the 
right kind of light, and the right amount of light. The 
latter two factors are entirely dependent upon the 
architect's grasp and solution of the problem. 

Wardrobes. — It is possible to locate the wardrobe in 
the front, rear, or side of the classroom. Figures 219 and 
220 show the wardrobe at the front ; Figure 221 shows it 
at the side, while in Figure 222, known as the " Chicago " 




•DIAGRAM 



Uiyuoi WALIS- 



Fig. 



glass area. It will be found that to meet 20 per cent 
equivalent, both the head and stool are almost auto- 
matically fixed, at least to only a slight range of variation. 
The soffit of the window head is usually not more than 
six inches below the ceiling line, and wherever the lintels 
can be splayed, just that much more light is given to the 
room. It is desirable that the masonry reveal on the 
left of the group of windows extend so far to the rear of 
the classroom as the rear seat, and on the right not much 
farther forward than the front line of desks, although I 
do not believe that the exterior appearance of a school 
should be marred to bring this about. 

Many think well of the long blank space in the exterior 
wall adjacent to the front of the room, counting on this 
space to partially intercept the rays of light from that 
angle. A close examination will disclose the fact that 
this benefits but a small percentage of the pupils of a 



type, it may be at the front or rear. As previously 
mentioned, the " Chicago " type requires less floor 
area and does not increase the cost of construction due 
to width of room, as in Figure 221. However, the latter 
gives more room for the clothing, which is well worth 
considering. Access to both types is by means of 
vertically sliding panel doors, containing blackboards, 
counterweighted for easy operation. 

Figures 219 and 220 show the type having an outside 
window, which gives direct lighting and natural ventila- 
tion. They are favored by many for these reasons and 
are more hygienic. It should be noted that the parti- 
tion between the teacher's closet at the window does 
not extend to the ceiling but stops just above the top of 
the door. Also the upper panel of the door is glazed, 
permitting light to pass through. 

The teacher's closet is found to be very convenient 



2 68 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



and inexpensive. In addition to its other uses it is 
handy for the storage of supplies. Figure 232 shows the 
details within the room for the hanging of clothes for 
all three types of wardrobes. The hooks are usually 
spaced 12 inches on centers on each rod, making the 
net spacing about 6 inches on centers. While the 
heights of the rods are marked on the drawings, it may 
be well to record them here. For kindergarten the 
lower pole is thirty inches from the floor ; for grades I, 
II, III, and IV, thirty-six to forty inches ; for grades V, 
VI, VII, and VIII, forty-four, forty-eight, and fifty- 
two inches. 

The steam coils are placed in the location shown, so 
that during inclement weather wet and damp clothing 
may be dried before recess or closing time. The cloth- 
ing is protected from the hot coils by a f" mesh wire 
guard covering the pipes as shown. Shut-off valves are 
placed in the teacher's closet and under her control. 
The cost of this installation is so small that it should 
never be omitted. Very often the exhaust register or 
vent opening, without a register, is placed at the floor 
level in the wardrobes. It is better, however, to have 
the vent register placed in the ceiling, for then the travel 
of the air will cause it to pass through the children's 
clothing, ventilating and drying them. Referring to 
the section of the classroom looking toward the teacher's 
end of the room (figure 231), it is seen that the doors of 
the wardrobe are hung with the lower edge about 15 
inches above the floor ; while this is not as neat in appear- 
ance as the door containing the bottom rail and metal 
grille, nevertheless it is more efficient in ventilating 
the room, as there is no obstruction to the flow of the 
air where heaviest at the floor level. 

Some school boards require an umbrella gutter extend- 
ing the length of the wardrobe, but the umbrella rack 
is more sanitary, less expensive, and less cumbersome. 
The wardrobe should always be confined within the 
walls of the classroom and never be a part of the corridor 
or open out into the corridor. The former gives to the 
teacher complete control of this space, and eliminates 
petty pilfering and unsightly corridor walls or pockets. 
Furthermore, it must be remembered that at times of 
danger and fire drills the children are never permitted 
to go to the wardrobe for their clothing, as that would 
be the surest way to create confusion and engender panic. 

Blackboards. — The question of blackboard material 
is bound to rise in any new school building project, and 
invariably the merits of the various materials are dis- 
cussed, and often with very limited data at hand to 
enlighten the discussion. Not infrequently the final 
result of such deliberations is determined by the pre- 
vailing influence of a good salesman. The points to 
consider in selecting blackboard material are smooth- 



ness of surface, durability, porosity, possibilities for 
washing and erasing, non-reflectiveness of light, uni- 
formity in color and permanency in shade. There is no 
material that will qualify to the test of the above require- 
ments as well as good natural slate. Slate is a natural 
rock, the distinguishing characteristic of which is to 
split readily into thin layers. The molecular structure 
is very dense. Hence it is readily polished to a very 
fine, smooth, non-porous surface. Glass blackboards 
are used to a great extent in European countries and to 
some extent in this country, and it appears, from letters 
at hand, with varying degrees of satisfactory results. 
It has proved satisfactory in the chemistry department 
of the New York City College, while at the Carnegie 
Technical School, a correspondent complains of strong 
reflection of light and recommends against its use. 
However, glass blackboards have been so little used in 
this country that it seems at this time like experimenting 
with the little-known to attempt their general use, which 
is all the more unlikely as the cost is considerably higher 
than that of slate. Substitutes for slate are usually 
of patented make. The most common are made from 
wood pulp, paper, and cement, others from pulverized 
steel filings mixed with ground slate and set with a stone 
cement. 

In school buildings of any permanency natural slate 
blackboards should be used. If they are of good material 
and have what is known as hand-shaved, or rubbed, 
velvet smooth finish no substitute is comparable in 
any way except in cost. A good method of determining 
the quality of smoothness is to draw long chalk lines 
upon it and note the continuity or unbrokenness of the 
line. If the lines appear to be short dashes or if the black 
is visible through the chalk line, then the finish is of poor 
workmanship and the material should be rejected. 
This precaution should be taken before it is set in place. 

In specifying slate blackboard, it should be clearly 
stated that the boards shall be \" to f" thick, in true 
planes, out of wind, and the exposed surfaces hand- 
shaved or rubbed to a smooth velvet finish, all abutting 
edges to be ground and straight so as to make a paper 
edge joint when set. After setting, all uneven joints 
should be rubbed until the surfaces are in the same plane. 
This can be accomplished by insisting on good setting 
and workmanship in the installation. Better settings 
are accomplished if the slate is backed with a stiff solid 
backing such as wood sheathing. This is true also as 
to composition boards, for they should be delivered 
in as long lengths as possible, and unless they have a 
stiff background they will show springiness and soon 
separate from the fastenings. 

Stock Sizes of Slate. — Slate blackboards are cut and 
carried in stock, in standard heights only. These 



THE CLASSROOM 



269 




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2-0" z-o' I /-&• 



N( UiliSHTS 



2k 



NSIDL WALL 



: ^>^^ 

^$: 






/-6" Z-o '| J - O" 



riVL HOW3 • R.OOAL Z/'-O" WIDE,- 



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Fig. 235. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. John J. Donovan, i 

Fig. 236. — Classroom Showing Open Windows, Clawson School, Oakland, California. 



standard heights are 3V, 3'6", 4/0", 4V, and 5V. 
This should be kept in mind when writing specifications. 
Other heights must be cut to order, and as proper 
blocks are not always available, delays and extra cost 
will follow. Lengths of slate blackboards range from 
2,'q" to about t'o" . 

It is safe to specify that all sections up to 5' 6" shall 
be in one piece, sections over 5' 6" and up to n'o" shall 
be in two pieces, and so on, using 5' 6" as a measure. 
Thereby the joints will occur as seldom as the market 
material will allow. It should be specified further that 
all blackboards shall be of the best grade of hand-shaved, 
natural slate, uniformly •§" thick, free from knots, 
veins, clay-holes, scale, crossgrain, curl, ribbons, or 
other defects ; finish face on one side only shall be 
pumiced, rubbed smooth, and of a perfect black uniform 
color and finish of velvet-like texture. Backs shall be 
sand-rubbed for correct mounting. All slate shall be 
set only by experienced mechanics, joints cemented, 
scraped, and rubbed to form absolutely true, and even 



flush surfaces. Slate shall be guaranteed not to fade. 
Good results usually follow. 

The details of Figure 231 show the horizontal location 
of the blackboards in classroom for upper grades of the 
elementary school, while the details of Figure 232 show 
more clearly the construction and installation. Type 
" A " is somewhat similar and less expensive than type 
" B." On the other hand, type " B " has smaller 
ledges for the lodgment of dust due to the bed-molds 
fitting into the angles formed by the wood casings 
or trim and the vertical walls. In type " B " the 
chalk rail has a hinged wire screen consisting of num- 
ber 18 gauge galvanized wire of f" mesh, and set in 
about 6V lengths and hinged every 2V to swing 
up and back to permit easy cleaning of the chalk 
rail. Its main purpose is to keep the chalk and 
erasers free from the chalk dust lying in the trough. 
It is one of the niceties in keeping with a well-finished 
room, but may be dispensed with for other more 
important details. It should be noted that black- 



THE CLASSROOM 



271 



boards should never be placed on the window side of 
the room. 

Height of Chalk-rails. — One of the most important 
points connected with schoolhouse construction is to 
have the heights of the chalk-rails correctly established 
and carefully inspected during the construction of the 
building. Too much stress cannot be laid to this 
feature, for the writer has visited schools having the 
heights entirely put of proportion to the age and size 
of the pupils using the room. Furthermore, it is really 
the heights of the chalk-rail from the floor that estab- 
lish the grade, of the room. The grade of any classroom 
may be changed by changing the furniture, but it is 
not so simple a matter to raise or lower the chalk-rail 
and blackboard without going to a great expense in 
tearing out finished permanent work. 

The heights given in Figure 232 are recorded here 
and are the results of careful observation by both 
educators and architects. The heights of blackboards 
above the chalk-rail as shown are recommended be- 
cause it is useless to install great heights of boards which 
children cannot reach with comfort and ease. However, 
conditions may arise, such as proper proportioning of 
wall spaces, which may require some deviation either 
one way or the other. 

Table No. 1, Blackboard data for classrooms : * 



Kindergarten 
I and II. . 
Ill and IV . 
V and VI . 
VII and VIII 
High School 



Height of Chalk- 
Rail above 



Height of Black- 
Chalk-Rail 



Tacking Strips. — It should be noted that the wall or 
hanging rail above the blackboard as shown in Figure 232 
contains cork strips inserted in the rail and serves for 
tacking papers, drawings, etc. This extends around the 
room and is exceedingly valuable to the teacher. Credit 
should be given Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect 
for the Board of Education, School District No. 1, 
Portland, Oregon, for this suggestion. The writer 
formerly used a concealed wire for such hangings, but 
believes the tacking device is superior. In Boston, 
where blackboards are not placed, the walls are covered 
with burlap and a picture mold is installed at the 



height of the top rail of blackboard, which serves for 
hanging drawings and pictures at this height. There 
is also a picture molding near the ceiling. 

The blackboards at the front of the room should have 
the chalk-rail not less than 3V above the floor so that 
the teacher's writing may be visible from all parts of 
the room, and above the chalk-rail the board should 
extend to the door height, which is about 4/0" above 
the chalk-rail. 

Reach of Pupils. — The following table was com- 
piled after a series of tests made in the Adams Cos- 
mopolitan School, San Francisco : 



Height 


Height 


Lowest Point 


Lowest Point 


GRADE 


Pupil Can 


Shortest 

Pupil Can 

Reach to 

Wrtte 


Stooping 

Pupil Can 
Write 


Stooping 
Shortest 
Pupil Can 


VIII . . . 


6' 4" 


S 


11" 


3' 


/ 


2' 8" 


VII . 






6' 4" 


S 


8" 


2' 8 




2' 8" 


VI 








b' 0" 


5 


6" 


3' 2 




3' 4" 


V 








6' 0" 


S 


1" 


2' 8 




2' 10" 


IV 








6'o" 


4 


9" 


3' 3 




2' 6" 


III 








5' l\" 


4 


8" 


2' 11 




2' 9" 


II 








5' 6" 


4 


5" 


3' 




2' 9" 


i . 








S'o" 


4' 0" 


2' 9" 


2' 8" 





General Notes. — If the fundamental factors of 
classroom construction, such as the size, height, and 
lighting, are correctly fixed, the interior finish and 
appointments are matters which the experienced, true- 
visioned architect will bring to a state of completion 
that will give pleasure and satisfaction. It is the taste, 
skill, knowledge of material, and experience of such an 
architect which immediately mark and elevate his work 
above that of the indifferent practitioner. It costs so 
little more, and often so much less, to perform and 
execute good work that it behooves those responsible 
for such public work as schoolhouses to carefully weigh 
this consideration. The value of good planning, co- 
ordinating of parts, careful study of requirements, and 
the labor of preliminary research may go for naught 
if the finished work does not show care and study in the 
selection of materials, refinement in details, and con- 
sideration in the color schemes of the rooms. 

How often are the good features of any piece of work 
lost sight of, or thrown into the background, by a crude 
and coarse treatment of that which first attracts atten- 
tion, namely, the exposed finish work ! There is almost 
as much distinction between the finished work of the 



1 Dr. Dressier, in his American School Houses, recommends the chalk-rail be placed for grades I and II, 25"; III and IV, 27"; V and VI, 30"; 
VII and VIII, 32"; and for high school classes, 40"; and that the width of board above the chalk-raij be for grades I and III, 28"; IV and V, 
32"; VT to VIII, 36"; and for high school classes, 40". 

The Boston School House Commission require the following : chalk- rail height from floor — Kindergarten, 2' 2"; grade IV, 2' 4" to 2' 6"; grades 
V to VIII, 2' 8" ; behind the teacher and on the long side the same ; and that boards above chalk-rail shall be 4' o". Also that blackboard shall be 
\" thick. At the rear of the room, instead of blackboards, soft wood sheathing is used with cork carpet attached to it, extending from the base to 
the molding at top of blackboards. 



272 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



skillful architect and of the untrained careless man as 
one finds in the work of the master artisan and the 
apprentice. And it is with that thought in mind that 
the remaining notes on the classroom are offered. Some 
of the recommendations may be improved upon, and most 
likely will be, as new devices are discovered and improve- 
ments are developed in the various building trades. 

It is well to avoid projecting ledges and dust catchers 
wherever possible. Of necessity there will be a certain 
amount of trim, such as casings, floor base, picture 
moldings, etc., but schoolrooms should be finished 
similar to the interiors of hospitals. The greatly in- 
creasing demand for schools and increased requirements 
in schools of to-day over those of only a few years 
past will not permit of the far-reaching sanitary treat- 
ment of hospitals, because of cost, but in so far as it is 
compatible with the available money, that should be 
the objective. 

Floors. — Whenever the seats and desks are fixed or 
fastened to the floors, it generally follows that wood 
is the material to use for flooring, although it is possible 
to adopt the awkward method of fastening desks to 
wood runners. Sometimes the finish of floors is battle- 
ship linoleum over cement or concrete, but since this is 
generally too expensive and used only for exceptional 
cases, it does not invite exhaustive discussion. 

Oak, likewise, is too expensive for general use for class- 
room floors, and in most cases the builder is held down 
to the use of maple and some of the other cheaper woods, 
such as Douglas fir (Oregon pine) in the West and 
yellow pine in the East and South. Maple is so superior 
for flooring that, like slate blackboards, it should be 
used whenever the funds at hand will permit. Boards 
of education should take these points into consideration 
before finally determining upon the school building 
appropriation, in order that there may be sufficient funds 
to handle the work properly and with the lowest cost 
later for repairs and maintenance. 

It is only in the most cheaply constructed buildings 
that double floors would not be installed ; and under no 
circumstance should a single thickness of flooring be 
used for any floor, and particularly for the first floor, 
on account of dampness and stagnant ground odors 
rising from below. Likewise, the noises from above 
make it mandatory that, double floors and deafening 
be used above the first floor. What is offered here is 
of course applicable to floors of joist construction. 
Where fireproof floor construction is installed, such as 
reenforced concrete or fireproof tile arches between 
steel beams with sleepers for nailing the under floor, 
the conditions are entirely different and more favorable. 
Before sleepers are set, they should be immersed in a 
wood preservative, allowed to absorb to the fullest 



capillary extent, and then dried before being set in 
place to receive the concrete fill and rough or finish 
flooring. If this precaution is not taken, dry rot is apt 
to set in, causing no end of- expense and inconvenience. 
In order that deafening may be effective, the finish 
floor should be laid so that it " floats " on 2 ,/ X2 // , or 
better 2"Xs", wood strips laid and occasionally tacked 
to the under floor. All deafening should extend upward 
back of the wall base at least 4". 

There are a few good floor deafeners or sound insu- 
lators on the market, anyone of which, if used in sufficient 
quantity and correctly applied according to the manu- 
facturer's directions, will answer the purpose. All 
finish floors should be tongued and grooved, blind- 
nailed, and top-nailed at end joints where necessary, 
thoroughly sanded by a sanding machine, and hand- 
scraped and sandpapered near the baseboards where 
it is difficult to run the sanding machine. 

Thresholds, door saddles, or carpet strips as they are 
often called, should not be used between rooms. When- 
ever the direction of the flooring changes or there is a 
change in flooring material, such as wood against cement, 
marble, or linoleum, the finish floor levels should be care- 
fully adjusted and a tight filler strip of the proper 
material, either marble, wood, or cement, should be 
inserted between the jambs and at the floor level. 

Interior Mill Work or Trim. — It has been previously 
stated that the interiors of classrooms should approach 
the interiors of modern hospitals in sanitary moldings 
and finish. However, a certain amount of trim is 
necessary, such as floor bases, chalk-rails, blackboard 
casings, hanging rails, and picture moldings. These 
moldings, casings, and rails should be as simple in 
design as possible and all ledges should be avoided by the 
use of rounded or coved bed molds. Type A, figure 232, 
shows a good example of a very simple treatment in 
larger detail of the interiors of figure 231. Type B of 
figure 232 is a more complete finish, as the angle or bed 
moldings are used throughout. 

One of the problems submitted to the writer a few 
years ago was to find a wall material which would take 
the wear and tear of hard usage for the wall space be- 
tween the top of the floor base and the under side of the 
chalk-rail. In the schools visited, especially in the 
lower grades, which had been in use from six to eight 
years, we found the plaster walls of this space much 
damaged, and this damage was more pronounced in 
appearance in many of the schools when the plaster 
walls were covered with burlap or heavy canvas, as the 
covering was torn. 

We decided upon the use of built-up veneer panels of 
the kind of wood used for the interior finish, which was 
mostly Douglas fir. Upon recent examination, the 



THE CLASSROOM 



273 





Fig. 237. — Open Windows in Patio — ] 

walls were found to be in splendid condition. This is 
the section of the room which receives the worst kind 
of wear, evidently from the children's feet and knees. 
Somehow or other, repair and maintenance of school 
buildings is given less attention than any other class 
of public or semi-public buildings, and no buildings 
except factories are subject to as much use and abuse 
as school buildings. Therefore, it behooves boards 
of education to build as permanently with good lasting 
materials as conditions will permit. 

It is not every appropriation that will permit the use 
of oak as an interior wood finish ; but oak, or a similar 
hardwood, should be the selection, as it gives the most 
pleasing appearance and adapts itself to almost any 
color scheme for the room. Furthermore, it is most 
durable, least susceptible to damage by dents, and may 
be easily refinished. However, the number of school- 
houses trimmed in oak is relatively small compared to 
the number finished in other woods, and we must treat 
with the conditions that prevail. In the West the most 
commonly used wood is Douglas fir, known as Oregon 
pine. It is a close grain wood and very easy to work ; 
is subject to some shrinkage, and therefore the wood 
should be thoroughly seasoned and kiln-dried. Also 
the joinery and workmanship should be of high grade. 
"The Eastern and Central states have a greater variety 
of woods to select from whenever oak is found to be 



Mr. Join) ./. Donoron iinil Mr. John Culm Hon aril, 

merson School, Oakland, California. 

outside the pale of price. Ash, birch, chestnut, white 
pine, and southern pine are woods adaptable for interior 
finish. 

The day may not be far distant when it will be eco- 
nomical to use metal trim for interior finish. At present, 
however, it is beyond the reach except only in unusual 
cases, such as in the many-storied schools of New York 
City, where its use is mainly for fireproof purposes. It 
is ideally sanitary, and with the baked enamel finish 
usually applied at the factory the durability is almost 
beyond measure. 

Doors. — At this age of progress it seems hardly 
necessary to repeat that all doors in school buildings 
should open outward from the room. While there is 
not as great danger from doors opening into a classroom 
as there is from the exterior doors of the building at 
the entrance and exits, yet the principle should be 
followed throughout and without exception. Also there 
should be but one door to a classroom, as that one 
means of exit gives the teacher complete control over 
the pupils in case of fire or alarm. With two doors 
to a room sometimes an excitable or unruly pupil might 
dash out of the room and possibly start a panic which 
could easily cause a tragic loss of life. 

Classroom doors should be at least 3' 4" in width 
and the usual height is 7' o" . The flush type of door 
without any panels or moldings is most desirable. They 



274 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



are built up with a center core, and layers of veneer are 
applied to the core, giving a smooth even finish. 

School authorities differ regarding the use of glass 
in the upper part of the classroom door, some object- 
ing to the absence of privacy in the room and stressing 
the fact that the passing of teachers and students in the 
corridors is distracting to the pupils and teacher within. 
On the other hand, the writer has found that the glass 
panels, if divided into reasonably small panes, meet with 
high favor. Considerable light is transmitted into the 
corridors, and it is always possible to use ground or 
obscure glass to obviate any distraction from the corridor. 

The door should always be fitted with a lock which 
never permits the door to be locked to those within 
the room. This applies to all doors of a school build- 
ing. There are inexpensive locks on the market that 
have this feature. The door may be locked from without 
to prevent pilfering and vandalism, but never from 
within. Furthermore, the door should be hung to open 
the full 1 80 degrees and have a doorholder consisting of 
a brass socket set in the bottom of the door which fits 
into a small round brass tongue about i" in diameter 
and set about \" above the finish floor of the corridor. 
Door checks to classroom doors are a nuisance and 
altogether unnecessary. 

Transoms. — The use of transoms in classrooms has 
been much debated. But experience and observation 
lead the writer to heartily recommend their use. The 
demand for more fresh air and freer circulation of air 
when the ventilating system is not functioning brought 
about their adoption in groups. When placed near 
the ceiling opposite the windows, a circulation of air 
in the room is always possible, since there is generally 
a difference of temperature between the outside of the 
building and the corridor side of the room. They are 
particularly adaptable to one-story schools with open 
porches, and have been found useful for cross-venti- 
lation of classrooms on each side of corridors. It is 
always possible to substitute wood panels for the glass 
if ill effects are found due to cross lighting, but the 
latter does not occur when the transoms are placed 
close to the ceiling. Usually the transoms are about 
2,' o" wide by about 2' o" high and are hinged and sus- 
pended by chains when open. Whenever they are 
installed, the wall below should be flared or sloped so 
that any dust lodging there may be easily seen and 
removed. 

Plaster. — Were it not for the bad acoustics so com- 
monly found in the classrooms of our fireproof school 
buildings this subject might very well be omitted, for 
there is no intention to include here a treatise on build- 
ing construction. Modern rapid construction and re- 
lated conditions brought into practice the use of what 



is known as hard wall or gypsum plaster, which is pre- 
pared before delivery to the buildings and is ready 
for immediate use by simply adding sand and water. 
The necessity to make buildings as nearly fireproof as 
possible developed the metal stud and metal lath. The 
use of the two materials, metal laths and hard wall 
plaster for wall surfaces, brought about a harder and 
denser surface than that of the wood lath and lime 
mortar. This plaster absorbs less sound waves set 
in motion by the voice, and reflects the waves, reverberat- 
ing them through the room. With maple flooring, metal 
desks with hardwood tops, slate blackboards, the walls 
and ceilings of metal lath, and hard wall plaster, to- 
gether with the window glass, the children and their 
clothing are the only substances remaining to raise the 
coefficient of absorption of the sound waves in the room. 
The writer has built such classrooms under fixed build- 
ing laws and knows whereof he speaks. It is for the 
peace of mind of both teacher and pupil that these 
facts are here set forth. 

The plastering materials most favorable for good 
acoustics in a classroom are wood lath and lime mortar 
gauged with Keene's cement ; the next least unfavorable 
are the terra cotta or burnt clay blocks and lime mortar, 
and the next to that are the metal lath and lime mortar, 
and the most unfavorable are the metal lath and hard 
wall plaster. 

All finish plaster work should be troweled to a smooth 
even finish with a steel trowel. Never should the surface 
receive a sand finish. 

It is not uncommon for a shrewd old plasterer to 
suggest the sand finish, as it means less labor for him, 
and speedier results. But the sand finish is a catch-all 
for the fine particles of dust, to say nothing of germs, 
bugs, and what not. The writer heartily urges the 
smooth finish for the health of the occupants of the 
room, a subject which will be further discussed under 
" Painting." 

Canvas. — In an elementary school building, the walls 
from the top of the blackboard to the floor receive hard 
usage, and the wear and tear of these surfaces have 
brought about the use of burlap or canvas on all plaster 
surfaces from the floor base to the top wall hanging rail 
except in such places as under the chalk-rail, previously 
described. Canvas should be what is known as " Oil 
Canvas," and be thoroughly sized with strong glue, 
sizing always to be applied before the canvas is placed 
in position, The canvas should be hung in perpendicu- 
lar strips as with wall paper wherever the height to be 
covered is greater than the width of the canvas. It 
. should be well pasted on the back with strong fresh 
glue and special care taken to make close, neat butt 
joints properly rolled down. Immediately after each 



THE CLASSROOM 



275 



stretch is finished sponge off with fresh clean water to 
remove all glue from the outside surface. All canvas 
work should call for a guarantee against peeling, blister- 
ing or other defects of material or workmanship for at 
least one year after completion. After the canvas has 
dried out it should receive at least two good coats of 
lead and oil as a finish. 

In specifying canvas, it is very important that only a 
high grade material be called for and used. The brand 
used should be one especially prepared for wall covering, 
and one which does not shrink or permit the glue to 
ooze through the weave, and which can be laid without 
the joints showing. The unprepared canvas will shrink 
and cause no end of bother, and never can be made 
satisfactory. 

Painting. — The color schemes for classrooms should 
be simple and of good taste, and the reason for this is 
quite evident. In the first place, with a black band 
of blackboard, the top of which cuts the height of the 
room in two, with the many-colored desk tops and seats 
and with desk supports of sharp color, usually black, 
there is very little chance to get away from the simplest 
of selection in color, as the restrictions have been rightly 
imposed by the requirements of utility attached to the 
problem. Occasionally we hear and read of color 
schemes for classrooms by some one who has spent but 
a little while within one, and who overlooks physical 
conditions that prohibit anything apart from a simple 
light treatment of both walls and ceiling. 

Who has not been in school buildings where either the 
colorist or the painter has attempted to reproduce the 
greens, blues, reds, and purples of nature on the walls 
of rooms for study, until they seemed to howl with 
violence ? Time and again one wonders what prompted 
the impulse. There are many such examples of poor 
taste, and they are not rare except in vigor. What can 
we expect of children who have to spend at least one- 
tenth of their life within rooms that either excite or 
depress ? 

The question of color scheme is extremely simple. 
First, the ceilings and walls should reflect as much 
diffused light as possible. Therefore the ceiling should 
be as close as possible to the white shade without having 
the dead white effect. The egg-shell white is not dis- 
pleasing, and it should be carried down to the top of the 
picture molding, which is usually placed close to the 
ceiling. Below that, light buffs, light grays, or any of 
the light, soft, pleasing hues which will harmonize with 
the wood stains, keeping them, however, light and flat, 
will give satisfactory results. Whenever burlap is 
used the same care should be exercised to keep the tones 
soft. Tans are good colors for this surface. 

Tints produce more pleasing and softer effects than 



paints, although many of the washable wall paints 
now on the market give pleasing fiat tones. The 
ceilings may be tinted, but whenever the money avail- 
able will permit the use of flat washable wall paints, 
these should be adopted. For with three good coats 
of a reputable make, it is possible later to wash and 
clean the walls with soap and water. The plaster 
finish must be smooth and not sanded. For first-class 
work the ceiling should receive two coats of tinting in 
addition to the coat of sizing; likewise the walls, if 
tinted. But if paint is used for either walls or ceilings, 
three coats are necessary to produce a satisfactory 
result. 

Seldom is the finished woodwork painted. It should 
be stained, shellacked and varnished and brought to a 
flat tone. The grain of the wood is enhanced by such 
treatment. And this is a matter on which the purchasing 
agent of the Board of Education should confer with the 
architect in the selection of the finish and colors of the 
school furniture. Many pleasing interiors have been 
marred by a thoughtless selection of furniture. Nobody 
with any taste would think of furnishing a home without 
giving thought to the colors of the rooms and the furni- 
ture, in order that quiet and harmony may be the pre- 
vailing note throughout. 

It is a good thought and well expressed that the proper 
color schemes for different rooms and different classrooms 
vary. They should be handled, however, with some 
thought of the orientation of the room. It should be 
emphasized that selection of colors receive just as much 
attention as any other part of the work, for it is equally 
as important in its effect on the pupils for whom the 
school is built. 

Floor Treatment. — It has long been the practice 
to oil the floors of classrooms in order to preserve the 
finish surface and to keep the dust from rising. A 
number of practical men have been consulted who have 
had wide experience in the use of materials for this 
purpose, and the best of the information obtained is 
given below. 

Floor Oiling. — The floors should be first thoroughly 
cleaned with hot water and a cleansing powder, using 
scrubbing brushes to remove all dirt, dust, and foreign 
substances, then allowed to dry thoroughly before apply- 
ing the oil dressing. In re-oiling floors this cleansing 
process should be strictly followed in order to preserve 
the natural color of the wood and to defer as long as 
possible the darkening or turning black of the floor. 

After the floor has been washed and allowed to dry, 
the oil should be applied with a mop and thoroughly 
mopped into the wood pores and allowed to penetrate 
thoroughly into the grain. After twenty-four hours 
the floor should be remopped with a dry mop which has 



276 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



been saturated with the oil and allowed to thoroughly 
dry, taking up any superfluous oil that may not have 
penetrated into the wood. This will give the floors a 
polish and prevent to a great extent soiling of the girl 
pupils' dresses. This work should be done about a week 
before the new building is accepted and during summer 
vacations in school buildings already in use. Once a 
year is generally considered sufficient for oiling floors 
completely and twice a year for the aisles between desks, 
but it is far better to make a thorough job of it twice a 
year. If the oiling is well done, it is then only necessary 
for the janitor to sweep the floors once a day with a long- 
handled 12" Russian bristle hair floor sweeper. 

The use of sprinkled sawdust in rooms with fixed 
desks should be discouraged, as it is almost impossible to 
prevent particles getting in around the floor flanges 
of desks and seats and creating unsanitary conditions. 
Cleaning floors by the vacuum process is not successful 
where desks are fixed or screwed to the floor, as it is 
difficult for the janitor to handle the hose and tools 
in and around the desk supports. It takes janitors 
longer and the work is not efficiently done as when done 
by the sweeper, particularly over oiled floors. The 
vacuum cleaner is desirable, however, for cleaning the 
blackboard erasers and the chalk rails. Chalk dust 
is very injurious to the lungs. 

When there is objection to the use of floor oils for 
floor finishes the following is a comprehensive descrip- 
tion of a treatment which gives a hard durable finish. 
Different woods, of necessity, call for special care. 
Every kind or all kinds will not accept the same treat- 
ment. The treatment given should be that which the 
nature of the wood requires. 

Floor Dressings. — The first thing to do with the 
newly laid floor after the surface has been sanded is 
to fill the pores of the wood with a prepared paste wood- 
filler made, for best results, from a combination of 
silica, or silex (quartz rock), linseed oil, Japan drier, 
thinned ready for application to the floor surface with 
either spirits of turpentine or petroleum naphtha. This 
prepares for a natural wood effect. If the wood is to be 
stained the stain should always be applied before the filler 
is put into the pores of the wood. This filled surface when 
it has hardened is sandpapered smooth and presents an 
even, uniform surface that will indefinitely prolong the 
life of the wood, and requires much less care and expense 
than an unfilled surface, and also requires less material 
for subsequent finishes of whatever kind employed. All 
stairway treads should receive like treatment when 
made of wood. The wood having open pores and 
demanding such treatment as stated are oak, ash, elm, 
cedar, maple, gum, and Oregon pine (Douglas fir), all 
of which are greatly improved by this treatment. The 



more porous the wood the more need of filler. But 
porous wood, well filled, presents a relatively hard 
surface. 

Floors of halls of assembly, baths, gymnasiums, 
schools, churches, and public buildings give splendid 
service when, after they have been properly filled, they 
are given a first coating of a mixture of equal parts of 
raw linseed oil and petroleum naphtha. Allow sufficient 
time for the wood to absorb all it will and then remove 
surplus oil from the surface to prevent any tackiness 
of the material. An occasional cleansing of the floors 
and a repetition of the process of oiling as above stated 
will not only preserve the floor but keep it in an accept- 
able condition and appearance. 

There are other ways of finishing floors made of wood 
where they are used for banquet and dance purposes. 
The filled surface can be given an application of pre- 
pared floor wax and thoroughly polished or burnished 
with a weighted floor-polishing brush, or a coating of 
prepared dancing wax can be spread over the filled 
surface, letting the feet of the dancers do the polishing 
and finish. Another way is to apply one or more coats 
of a good quality of floor varnish (not shellac) over the 
filled floor surface if durability or service is desired. 
But there is one thing to be borne in mind in using 
varnish as a finish on floors. Keeping it in repair 
demands more expense and care than an oil or wax finish, 
as it cannot well be patched when worn in places of more 
or less constant use. The least durable of all floor 
finishes is the painted floor. Like the varnished surface, 
it is difficult to keep in repair without going over the 
whole surface. 

Linoleum. — Inlaid or battleship linoleum floor cover- 
ing when newly laid should never be varnished to pre- 
serve or beautify it. But if when cleansed it is given 
an occasional going-over with a cloth or mop slightly 
saturated with a solution of equal parts of raw linseed 
oil and either turpentine or petroleum naphtha, being 
careful to leave no surplus oil to become tacky, it will 
be beautified and its life prolonged. This does not apply 
to the cheaper class of stamped linoleum floor coverings. 

Linseed Oil and Turpentine. — Another simple but 
effective treatment is to apply one coat of pure raw 
linseed oil and 25 per cent of turpentine and a small 
amount of Japan drier, thoroughly mixed and applied 
hot. Although this is not a dust allayer, it makes a very 
pleasing floor finish. 

Location of Air Registers. — When a ventilating 
system is properly laid out by a competent heating 
and ventilating engineer, there should be little or no 
occasion for the misplacement of air supply and exhaust 
vent openings. One the other hand, the principle of 
complete circulation of the air is often abused, and it 



THE CLASSROOM 



277 



may not be always convenient to obtain the services of 
an engineer. Therefore, a description of the classroom 
which disregarded this point would not be complete. 

In a room 13' o" high the center of the supply opening 
should be about 0/ o" above the floor, and its location 
gives best results when the air in its travels makes a 
complete circuit of the room. In classrooms of type 
Figure 219, the proper location is back of the teacher's 
desk. Then the air will pass out into the room and 
gradually force its way back under the wardrobe doors, 
and up to the vent in the ceiling of the wardrobes. 
The supply and exhaust should always be at the same 
side or same end and never in opposite walls. Air, 
like water or electricity, will take the line of least resist- 
ance when under pressure. For effective ventilation the 
air should be forced to circulate into all parts of the room. 

The location of the exhaust in figure 221 should be 
observed. Here the supply is located at one end of the 
wall side, and the air exhausts under the wardrobe doors 
and up through the vent in the ceiling of the wardrobe 
end furthest removed from the location of the supply. 
The course the air must take in its movement will include 
every seat in the room. 

Windows. 1 — The demand for open air classrooms 
led the writer in 191 2 to devise a window that would 
make practically every classroom an open air room at 
will. For he thought that if it is desirable to have 
open air rooms for tubercular or anaemic children it is 
equally desirable to preserve the health of healthy 
children. Figures 236 and 237 are fairly good photo- 
graphs of the results attained. These window sash 
operate on a small roller, and by means of thin galvanized 
metal arms may turn through an angle of 180 degrees. 
The top of the sash moves in a vertical plane, while 
the bottom of the sash moves outward and upward. 

The problem of shading the sun from the room and 
preserving the full width of opening was solved by 
hanging a separate shade on each sash at the bottom, 
and placing eyelets in the shade slat ; the latter travels 
along fine galvanized wires and prevents the shade from 
flapping and tearing. Thus the sash may be completely 
covered by the shade, and by adjusting the sashes at the 
proper angles each sash shades the open space below. 

Shades. — Window shades in classrooms should never 
be opaque, but rather translucent. In laboratories there 
are occasions for opaque shades, which are discussed 
under the science group, but in the classroom they 
ought to be banished entirely. The shades are found 
to be more satisfactory when the oiled shade cloth is 
of rough surface or of the light cotton duck or canvas 
containing no starch, paint or filler, and dyed to the 
color desired. Usually the tans or grays give better 
results, as they harmonize with the interior colors of the 



1 The Universal Window. 



room and generally with the exteriors. The green 
shades are too strong in contrast with the surrounding 
colors and tend to darken the room too much. Besides, 
they vitiate the outside color scheme. Many well- 
designed exteriors have been spoiled by the use of 
dark shades. 

Flanging of shades is so well understood that it seems 
hardly necessary to say more than a word regarding 
it. With double-hung windows there should be two 
sets of shades with each masonry opening, and the 
rollers should be placed at the meeting rail, with the 
lower shade roller above the roller for the upper shade 
and arranged so the shade cloth pulls down and behind 
the upper shade roller. It is decidedly bad practice to 
suspend shades from the head of double-hung windows, 
as it prevents operating the shade so as to obtain full 
advantage of both light and air, and renders it impossible 
to prevent noisy flapping when the window is open and 
the wind is blowing. Shades should extend at least 
one inch beyond the inside edge of the casing or jamb, 
with the slats one-half inch wider than the shades. 

Recently there has been introduced a number of 
patented adjustable shade fixtures adaptable for use on 
double-hung windows, and inasmuch as there is room 
for improvement it is well to reconsider this problem as 
each new device is submitted. 

Venetian Blinds. — Venetian blinds for shades to 
classroom windows have been frowned upon by school 
authorities on account of the dust settling and collect- 
ing upon the slats, also on account of the horizontal 
streaks of light reflected into the room, which are par- 
ticularly bad at the level of the eyes. In the last few 
years, however, the installations of Venetian blinds have 
become more successful and are very much used, espe- 
cially where it is desirable to keep the windows open 
wide during the hot days and at the same time shut out 
or deflect the sun's rays. The success of these installa- 
tions is due to the use of a wider slat which, when tilted 
at the proper angle, greatly obviates the horizontal 
streaks and reflects the sun's rays to the white ceiling, 
giving a diffused light to the room. Another reason 
is due to the use of a wood of light color which, if treated 
in the natural, causes a sense of diffusion of the light 
from that part of the room. Venetian blinds are better 
adapted to rooms for laboratories, offices, cooking, 
typewriting, and similar rooms, where it is possible to 
move about, rather than to classrooms where the student 
is confined to a fixed position. 

The best materials for Venetian blinds are cedar, yellow 
pine, and redwood. Cedar is by far the best because 
of its toughness. Moreover the grain enables it to take 
a good light natural finish which will reflect the maxi- 
mum amount of light, and it is much easier to keep 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



clean than any other finish. There are several styles, 
but. the top roll blind is best for school work. This 
operates so as to insure the bottom of the blind being 
raised evenly. The blinds should be made so that the 
slats tilt easily and positively to give control over the sun- 
light entering the room. 



The advantage gained by the use of Venetian blinds 
is that in localities of intense sunlight the south and 
west exposures need not be avoided, making possible 
more economic planning, especially if the architect is 
confronted with the problem of east light only for 
classrooms. 



CHAPTER XIII 



KINDERGARTEN 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.I.A. 

I. General Remarks. II. Exposure. III. Size. IV. Furnishings. V. Subjects Taught, (i) Music. (2) Language. (3) Literature. 
(4) Rhythm. (5) Games. (6) Nature Study. (7) Manual Training. (8) Socialization. 



General Remarks. — There is very little opportunity 
in the elementary school for the architect to depart 
from the uniform fixed requirements in planning class- 
rooms, but when he comes to the kindergarten there is 
every incentive, and great possibility for freedom to 
do something out of the ordinary and the conventional. 
In its broadest sense, the kindergarten is a room more for 
supervised play than for study, with its dances, games, 
singing, and its beautiful make-believes. It is where the 
child receives its first impression of school life, and the 
room and environment should be made as attractive and 
interesting as possible, so that the little ones may get 
as much joy out of their first school year as comfortable 
and pleasing quarters may provide. Therefore, the 
architect should feel free to exercise his taste and imagi- 
nation in making this room a little wonderland of 
childhood. 

Exposure. — Its exposure should be the southeast 
corner of the building, on the ground floor, for warmth 
and cheer. That location makes it possible to have 
separate playgrounds, a pergola, covered porch or sun 
room just off the main room, and a small garden where 
the children may have practical lessons in nature study. 
The garden should be large enough to provide a small 
plot for each child. Mural decorations or paintings of 
children at play, animals, allegorical subjects and nursery 
rhymes told by good paintings, applied to the frieze or 
wall spaces above the door headline or above the black- 
board space, if well done, will be worth the expense for 
the children's mental welfare and for the pleasure and 
happiness they will give. 

Size. — In size, the room should be equivalent to one 
and one-half or two classrooms. It is a room which might 
be described as having elastic dimensions, as there are 
no fixed seats or desks. Where there is an alcove for 
sand tables, piano, racks, etc., a room 24/X40' will 
give ample space, especially if there is an outdoor porch 
or sun room. Figure 238 shows a plan of the kindergarten 



in the Clawson School, Oakland, California, which ad- 
mirably lent itself to the general plan of the school. 

This plan provides for fifty children divided into two 
classes, a morning and an afternoon class. Figure 239 is a 
view of the interior of the room, showing the fireplace 
around which the children gather at Hallowe'en and 
Thanksgiving to pop corn, and where at Christmas time 
stockings are hung and filled. On dark and rainy days 
it is pleasant and cheerful to have a log fire and to gather 
around it for stories and tales which linger long in the 
child's memory and engender an affection for school 
hours. The cases and drawers on either side of the small 
stage are for the children's work and material. There 
should be drawers 10 inches wide, 12 inches deep, and 
6 inches high for each child, and the top drawer should 
not be more than 3' o" above the floor, so each child 
may take out and replace his own work. The cases 
above the drawers are for the teacher's use. 

A circle 16' o" in diameter is often painted on the 
floor with an allowance of 4' o" outside of that for clear 
space for many of the games. The alcove, about 
15' o"Xn' o", is a convenient place for the sandbox 
and the piano, and gives more freedom to the main room. 
Juvenile plumbing fixtures, such as the water-closet 
10 inches high and the regular chinaware lavatory, are 
necessary and should be in a room adjacent to the main 
room. One such toilet room is sufficient for children 
of kindergarten age. Special care should be taken to 
place the wardrobe hooks and rails at a height easily 
reached by the children. The lower rail should be not 
over 30 inches from the floor. (See Figure 232, p. 266.) 

Figure 240 shows the covered porch at the Clawson 
School. It is adjacent to the kindergarten playground, 
and here the children go to play during pleasant weather 
and to do carpenter work in the making of doll houses, 
wagons, boxes, houses for pets, etc. Discarded pieces 
of lumber from the manual-training shop find ready use 
in the kindergarten. The porch could easily be inclosed 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



I 

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qtVATIOiJ TOWARDS' STAGE, IN UMMiMLk 

DRAW£,R,S lO'XirXG" DLLP (3t,LpW)- 
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-LIST Of tQUIPILEjT- 

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7- TABLtS 3C'X20"X 20 

14- -CHAIR, 5 JO" 

14 ' 1 Z~ 

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1 TUC1C FOIL 30 HklTinG &UGS([YI).sq) 
I DOL.L, HOUSL, - 4- ROOitS - 3 SQ.FT. £,ACi£- 
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PUAYSPACf, Toil 

KLND^ILGATLVU? CH1U)HLN 



-PLAN Of KlflDLLGAllTO LQOil ; 



3 C Al, £, 
Fig. 238. 



KINDERGARTEN 




Fig. 239. — Interior — Kindergarten Clawson School, Oakland, Californ: 



with removable doors and sash, .so that in the winter it 
might serve as a sun porch. Here is a good place for 
the sanitary ' drinking- fountain, placed low enough for 
the smallest child. The playground should have small 
slides, several swings and sandboxes and boxes and cages 
for pets of different kinds. These may be had at very 
little cost and go to make up the equipment for the day's 
study and play. 

When boards of education are restricted in funds and 
cannot afford the additional room for the alcove or the 
porch, Figure 241 is a good example of a room which will 
very well serve the purpose. This room is 24 feet wide 
by 45 feet long and should be at least 13 feet high. The 
drawers and lockers are built into the wall as shown. 
Apart from the omission of the alcove and the porch 
there is very little difference between Figure 241 and 
Figure 238. Figure 238, however, permits opportunity 
for wider use and activity for kindergarten work. 

Furnishings. — The furnishings for the room are as 
follows : 

Piano. 

8 tables 36" X 20" X 18" high. 

8 tables 36" X 20" X 20" high. 

15 chairs 10" high. 

15 chairs 12" high. 

1 chair 15" high for teacher. 



1 rack large enough for 30 yards of square matting 
rugs, used by the children when working on the floor. 

1 small table for a fish globe. 

2 taborets or pedestals for plants. 

1 doll house containing four rooms each 3 feet square. 

1 folding burlap screen with four leaves, each leaf 
5' o" wide by 4' o" high. This is to be used as a portable 
playhouse. 

Picture frames should be arranged with a hinged door 
in the back in order that pictures may be changed 
easily. 

Subjects Taught. — Some of the things taught in the 
kindergarten are as follows : 

Music. Calls and exercises for proper placement of 
voice. Songs — both by group and solos. 

Languages. Children are given an opportunity to 
talk and are helped in their choice and use of good 
English. 

Literature. Children receive and learn to appreciate ' 
the best in literature when they are given such master- 
pieces as the Mother Goose Nursery Rhymes and such 
stories as " The Little Red Hen," " The Three Bears," 
" The Three Little Pigs," etc. 

Rhythm. Children are taught to recognize the differ- 
ence in the time of music. They learn the difference 
between music for skipping, marching, galloping, etc. 



282 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





Fig. 240. — Kindergarten Porch, Cl 

They are very soon able to keep perfect time to any kind 
of music. 

Games are a very important part of the kindergarten 
curriculum. Children of this age love activity, so the 
simple games with a great deal of activity are chosen, 
also imitative games. The games are developed usually 
through suggestions from the children, and are seldom 
given " ready made." Through the games the children 
gain physical grace and coordination, rhythm, and best 
of all, the spirit of true sportsmanship. Some games 
which are full of activity and are great favorites are : 
" Stooping Tag," " The Merry- Go -Round " and " The 
Shoemaker Dance." 

Nature Study. Gardening, gathering of seeds, cocoons, 
etc. Care of pets. 

Manual Training. Some of the occupations in the 
kindergarten are : sewing, weaving, paper folding, paper 
cutting, drawing, painting, clay modeling, and stringing. 

Socialization is emphasized greatly in the kindergarten 
and so cultivates the community feeling and thought. 
All of the children take part and are interested in the 



building or furnishing of the doll's house, dressing of the 
doll, planting of the garden, seeds, caring for the fish 
and the plants. 

It can be seen from the above description of the equip- 
ment and program of studies that the kindergarten is 
hardly more than a pleasant room where the child's welfare, 
deportment and discipline are of more concern than what 
it is taught, and in consequence of the kindergarten being 
the first step from home to the care of society, a further 
plea for attractiveness to the room, its accessory rooms, 
and adjacent planting and playgrounds is not amiss. 

There is no end to the possibilities that the future may 
have in store for this very elementary grade. The writer 
is optimistic regarding the future planning and develop- 
ment of the kindergarten. 

Referring to Figures 244 and 245, kindergarten rooms 
executed by Mr. Wm. B. Ittner, Architect, and to Figures 
246, 247 A and 247 B, Downers' Grove Kindergarten, by 
Messrs. Perkins, Fellows and Hamilton, Architects, it 
will be observed that these gentlemen have struck a high 
note in the planning and decorative work of these rooms. 



KINDERGARTEN 




TV I If D O W S - 



'ALTONATf. ?LAN OK KINMUGAllTe LOOM- 



■ S C A L, r,- 
Fig. 241. 



284 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Win Tcmvlilon Jnhnann, Architect. 



Fig. 242. — Kindergarten, Francis W. Parker School, San Diego, California. 



KINDERGARTEN 



285 




Fig. 243. — Kindergarten, Lincoln School, Toledo, Ohio. 



Mr. Edviin M. Gee, Architect. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




BOW1ERS GMVE«MRGMTIN 



* DOWNED GROVE • ILL • 
•PBfUOKS' ftiLOWS & HAMILTON • ARCHITECTS- 

Fig. 246. 



KINDERGARTEN 




Fig. 247 b. — Kindergarten, Downer's Grove, Illinois. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Messrs. Sellons & Pearson, / 

Fig. 248. — Open-air Kindergarten — Fremont School, Sacramento, California. 




Messrs. Ouilbert & 



Fig. 249. — Kindergarten, Cleveland School, Newark, New Jersey. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A.IA. 



Interior Construction, (i) Stacks. (2) Doors. 
VIII. Equipment. (1) Shelving. (2) Chairs. 



I. The Importance of the School Library. II. The Location. III. Size. IV 
(3) Flooring. V. Ventilation. VI. Lighting and Illumination. VII. Finish. 
(3) Desks. LX. Fireproofing. 

The Importance of the School Library. 1 — The school 
library, in the importance of its relation to the whole 
school plant, is second to no other department. Indeed, 
the time is not so far distant when it will serve the second- 
ary school and the community as the college library serves 
the needs of the university. Like the school itself, it has 
not yet been fully discovered. Not so long ago, cities and 
smaller communities reclined in satisfaction upon the fact 
that their school operated but six hours out of the twenty- 
four. There was no conception of the intellectual 
stimulus that comes to the adult long after he has left 
school, *— an activity that has in it possibilities for a 
more complete development both intellectually and in- 
dustrially, and which, when the opportunity is offered, 
brings the adult back to the school for further training 
that will make him more valuable to himself and the 
nation. There was no appreciation of the fact that the 
operation of the school plant between 7.15 in the morning 
and 9.30 in the evening would offer such an opportunity 
without appreciable wear and tear to the machinery. 

At that time the school library was considered sufficient 
if it consisted of a single small room with a few shelves 
containing duplicate text books or a few editions for 
supplementary reading. The principal or the English 
teacher supervised the library in conjunction with his 
other duties. It was considered a duplication of the 
same function to have a library department directed by 
a school librarian if the community possessed a public 
library. The distinct functions of both were not clearly 
understood, and consequently the other departments of 

1 In presenting this chapter, the writer feels indebted to the following people for the valuable information contained in their writings on "The School 
Library" : 

Miss Irene Warren, Chicago, 111., through the courtesy of The American School Board Journal. 
Miss Mary E. Hall, Librarian, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. 
Mr. Gilbert O. Ward, Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Professor C. C. Certain, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Madison, Librarian, Oakland High School, Oakland, Cal. 
The Library Bureau, for their many illustrations of equipment and interiors. 

291 



the school advanced more rapidly in personnel and 
equipment. 

To-day it is different. It is generally understood that 
the public library is an institution endowed for the 
purpose of providing intellectual enlightenment for the 
entire community, and that the school library is a depart- 
ment of the school serving the school as the public 
library serves the community, except in a more inten- 
sive and specialized manner. The school library so 
functions with the school organization that if it is 
inadequate in size and equipment, or poorly located and 
administered, the educational efficiency of the school 
as a whole is greatly impaired. On the other hand, an 
adequate well-conducted library may offset a number 
of deficiencies in other departments. The library is of 
such importance to the school plant that it might be 
stated as an educational axiom that the prospective 
value of the student to the state, society in general, and 
to himself, is largely dependent upon his regard for the 
library and his ability to make the fullest possible intelli- 
gent use of it. 

Happily, the tendency is to train students now to 
use the room and its contents. A letter at hand states 
that at Rochester, Minnesota, the junior and senior 
high school students are allowed to enter the library only 
at the beginning of a period and must remain until the 
close of that period. By this wise regulation, confusion 
of movement is avoided and there is afforded at least 
thirty to thirty-five minutes of absolute quietness. 
(Figure 250.) It is also stated that as students enter the 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




-High School Library, Rochester, Minnesota. 



room, they are required to sign their names in an enroll- 
ment book, and the records show that out of a total of 
700 students, 350 or 50 per cent of the school use the 
room daily. This is a gratifying indication of the 
measure of usefulness and service of this room. 1 

The library should have the same relation to the 
student as the tool room of the machine shop has to the 
mechanic. The latter knows that to perform special 
work, special tools are necessary, and experience has 
given him judgment in selecting the right equipment to 
execute accurately the work at hand. In like manner, 
the student should receive a training in the intelligent 
and independent use of the library, which knowledge will 
enable him to find quickly the means of illuminating the 
way and strengthening his grasp on the problems of 
education and industry. If he passes through the high 
school without this training, it is not unlikely he will 
leave college without it, and as the majority of high 
school students do not go to college the loss is all the 
greater to both the state and the individual. To one 

1 This system is in use in many other schools, for 



unaccustomed to the use of a library, the room with its 
vast number of books is a bewildering maze ; but to 
the trained user, it is a quiet spot where tried friends and 
wise counselors may be met in valuable association. 

It is earnestly recommended by authorities on school 
libraries that the curriculum of the first year's work 
should include a thorough course in the use of the library, 
with directions as to the use of reference books, encyclo- 
pedias, dictionaries, works of literature, science, card 
indexes, etc. This will lead to direct methods for 
intelligent research and a later saving in time in the use 
of the college or public libraries. 

Location. — The library should be centrally located, 
so that it may be conveniently and quickly reached by 
the students from the departments whose use of the room 
is greatest. Consequently, it should be nearest to the 
rooms assigned to academic studies, such as history, 
English, literature, civics, and the sciences. Inasmuch 
as the library is a special room and generally large, its 
location and importance should have a decided influence 

instance the high schools of Los Angeles, California. 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 



293 



upon the architectural treatment of the plan and eleva- 
tion. Very often it is the motive for special accent in 
the exterior design of the building; and if it is well 
handled in plan, it should be an influential factor in the 
composition. 

Whether it should be on the second floor or on the 
.ground floor, is largely dependent upon the policy of its 
use. If it is to be used by the pupils only, the second 
floor because of quietness is by far the more desirable. 
If its use is to be shared by the public, it should be located 
so that the community patrons will cause the least 
interruption of the work of the school and that of the 
pupils in the library. After weighing the probable 
advantages to the public, it should be remembered that 
the room is primarily a school study or reference room 
under the administration and discipline 
of the school librarian, and that any 
outside interference or interruptions will 
seriously affect the efficiency of the 
students' use of it. This outweighs any 
advantage gained by admitting a small 
percentage of the community to its use. 
However, if it has a combined purpose, 
it should be arranged so that the public 
and the students are completely sepa- 
rated; in order to do this, the room 
should then be placed on the ground 
floor, with a separate entrance for the 
public, and an additional librarian pro- 
vided to serve them. There is still 
another very important factor regarding 
this phase, and that is, the use of the 
library by the students enrolled in the 
continuation school. A striking example 
is that of the Technical High School in 
Oakland, California. In this institu- 
tion there are 2000 day students and 4400 continuation 
students. Of this latter number, there are 1500 who 
attend the school between the hours of 1 p.m. and 9.30 
p.m. daily. About 60, or 4 per cent, of the continuation 
attendance have occasion to use the library constantly. 
Also, many arrive at the school before the hour of class- 
room or laboratory work and sensibly drift into the 
library instead of waiting in the corridors or outside the 
building. It is evident from this that the library should 
be located so that it is also easily accessible from one of 
the entrances in order that the continuation school 
students may quickly reach the room without having to 
add to the congestion of the corridors. Service is the 
important factor in deciding matters of this kind, and 
in the construction of a school, it is only after the condi- 
tions of policy, arrangement, and equipment, for both 
present and future needs, have been studied with the 



librarian that the location of the department should be 
determined. Furthermore, the library is very rapid in 
its growth, and wherever located, provision should be 
made so that logical expansion will always be possible. 

Size. — For elementary schools, the library need not 
be more than about two-thirds the size of the average 
classroom, as there is very little reference work in this 
grade of school organization. However, there should 
be shelving space for about 800 to 1000 books for both 
the teachers' and older pupils' use for outside reading. 
Public School 29, Brooklyn, N.Y., designed by Mr. 
C. B. J. Snyder, Architect, contains a library seating 
forty pupils, and which communicates with the office 
of the vice-principal by means of a door at one end of 
the room and with the adjacent classroom by a folding 



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VICf, PRINCIPALS 

or net, 



•PLAN 




partition at the other end. (See Figure 251.) The 
library and adjoining classroom may therefore be thrown 
into one and used as a study room if so desired. This 
school has a capacity of 1986 pupils and includes grades 
from iA to 9B inclusive, which is equivalent in number 
to the grades of the elementary and junior high schools. 
For the intermediate or junior high school, the library 
assumes more importance and should offer space to 
seat at least 6 per cent of the school enrollment, as the 
majority of the pupils will not advance to the regular 
high school. (See Figure 252.) It is at this time that 
pupils should receive a training in the use of the library 
and be induced to make a practice of using the room 
and to cultivate a liking and desire for books of literature, 
fiction, travel, industry, and the sciences. They are 
entitled to the opportunity, and the room and training 
should be made attractive so that attendance will be 



294 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




voluntary rather than compulsory. What follows re- 
garding the high school is equally applicable to the 
intermediate, modified in proportion to the relative sizes 
of the two schools. 

It is, however, around the high school that the greatest 
activity in library work exists, and in discussing size, 
the question of the number of rooms given to the library 
department is important. In a high school of from 
150 to 1000 pupils, a single reference room capable of 
seating from 25 to 60 pupils, with a small workroom 
about io'Xi2' for the librarian, is probably ample, 
and all that such a school plant can afford. (See Figure 
253.) But for the large high school of from 1200 to 2500, 
exclusive of the number of continuation students, there 
should be a reference room, workroom, combined 
museum and classroom, and a stackroom. (See 
Figure 254.) The reference or reading room should be 
large enough to seat at least 8 per cent of the day school 
enrollment, and this should be increased to 10 per cent if 



the plant is used also as a continuation school. The basis 
of measurement is to allow 20 to 25 square feet for each 
reader. This will provide floor space for aisles, tables, 
cases, etc. (See Figure 255.) If the library is to be used 
as a study room, replacing or supplementing one of the 
prevailing systems, the room will necessarily have to 
be larger, and the problem then becomes a subject for 
special investigation, with the administrative policy of 
the school a very determining factor. 

The library classroom is really a small lecture room 
capable of seating from 30 to 40 students. It should 
also serve as the library museum, the museum cases 
being placed along the walls of the room. An area 
included within 25'X3s' will be sufficient to seat the 
class and give considerable wall space for the museum 
cases. Besides having museum cases, it should be 
equipped with tablet armchairs, electrical receptacle 
for a low-power reflectroscope, a screen for lantern 
projections, a small stage, bulletin boards, and a black- 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 



295 




• TLAN OF L1RHAHY FQHA5MALL SCHOOL OF FIIOM. 500 TO 1000 PUPILS- 



5CALI, 

Fig. 253. 



board at the front of the room above the stage. In 
order that the room may be darkened, the window casing 
should be recessed as described under Physics (page 353). 
Two sets of window shades, opaque and translucent, are 
necessary. 

The workroom and stackroom might very well be 
combined, allowing a section of about i2'Xi6' of the 
room for the repair and cataloguing of books. The 
space for repairing should be provided with a lavatory, 
work tables, and ample shelf space for the storage of 



floor. In each tier there are usually six movable shelves 
and one fixed shelf, 3' o" long, adjustable on 1" centers, 
and 8" or 10" deep. (See Figure 256.) An allowance of 
from 30 to 35 pounds per cubic foot should be made 
for the book ranges. Book capacities per linear foot of 
shelving may be figured on the following basis : law 
books, five volumes ; reference books, six volumes ; scien- 
tific books, seven volumes ; general literature, from eight 
to ten volumes. 

In cases where lack of floor space necessitates the use 



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PLAN OF Li&iAILY FQL A HIGH 5CHOQL OF 18QQ TO 25CQ PUPILS ■ 



books. A stackroom will be found desirable in the 
future high school to store special books and those that, 
having outlived their usefulness, should still be saved for 
reference work. A stackroom is the best means of 
providing expansion for the reference or reading room. 

Interior Construction. Stacks 1 . — In the construction 
of the standard metal stack, the book ranges are usually 
double faced, and the a : sles at least 2' 8" in width. 
The regular tiers are 7' o" or 7' 6" high. A footboard 
should raise the lowest shelf four to six inches from the 

1 Kidder's Hand Book, 



of double tiers, the following suggestion is offered regard- 
ing the construction of metal book stacks, as a saving in 
cost of installation, and for convenience to the librarian : 
if the aisles between stacks are made 3' 4" in width and 
the double tiers are equipped with a horizontal sliding 
step-ladder similar to those used in shoe stores, hung on 
a guide supported on the frame of the top tier, then easy 
access to each stack is attainable without having to re- 
peatedly climb stairs and retrace steps. This is more 
applicable to a school library where the accessions will 

Sixteenth Edition. 



296 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Library, Schenley School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



Edward statz. Architect. 



never be extremely large than to a general library where 
unlimited expansion must be provided by means of the 
usual tiers of stacks and the dividing floors. 

Doors. — While there should be more than one pair 
of double doors to a large reference room, it will be 
found advantageous for the discipline of the reference 
room, if the students enter and leave the room near the 
charging desk. All doors should be equipped with 
liquid door checks to prevent them from closing noisily. 
While locks are necessary, push-plates and pull-handles 
should replace the knob and latch so that the doors are 
opened with the least possible disturbance. It is a good 
investment to have all doors and door frames of hollow 
metal and wire glass construction, the former equipped 
to close automatically. The mechanical difficulty of 
rapidly opening and closing automatically controlled 
doors during rush periods between classes can be over- 
come by opening the library doors during the period of 
the intermission. This will permit a steady flow of 
students into the room without the interference of the 
constantly moving door. 



Flooring. — Battleship linoleum or cork tiling is the 
most satisfactory for library floors, as they are serviceable 
and cause very little noise from use. 

Ventilation. — The library rooms should be well 
ventilated by the plenum system, and except in sections 
of the country having severe winter weather, it would be 
better to have the room heated by this means, as the 
space under the windows is valuable for shelving. Where 
the winters are rigorous, the dual systems of radiators 
and tempered air are necessary. 

Lighting and Illumination. — The library should have 
the equivalent of 20 per cent of the floor area in glass 
area, and if the room has a sunny exposure, it will prove 
to be cheerful and inviting. For artificial lighting, the 
semi-indirect system is the most practical and the least 
expensive. The illumination should be designed so that 
the minimum candle-foot intensity in any part of the 
room is not less than 3.0 and, if possible, as high as 6.0. 
All lighting should be from above, as the tables in a 
school library are movable in order that the room may 
be adaptable for many activities. 



THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 




Fig. 256. — Library Showing Sin< 



Mr. Edward Stotz, Architect. 

k, University of California, Berkeley, California. 



Finish. — It is most desirable that the ceiling, walls, 
and trim be finished in light tones in order to reflect the 
greatest amount of light. Tones just off the white are 
best for ceilings ; buffs, tans, and grays for the walls ; 
and white oak, treated natural, for the trim. These 
will always give the best effect for school libraries. 
Finishing the room in oak simplifies the matter of color 
harmony in the selection of the equipment. The walls 
above the bookcases are usually formed into pleasing 
panels by the use of stencils of good patterns in keeping 
with the room. Picture moldings should be provided 
for the hanging of pictures and bas-relief casts of sculp- 
ture. (See Figures 257 and 258.) Well-executed mural 
paintings, decorative designs, and good casts are most 
appropriate for the reference room, and should be 
acquired from time to time with a good deal of judgment 
in their selection. By its composition in proportion, 
symmetry, and finish, and by its appointments, the 
library will reflect the quiet refined thought of the 
school. There is no department so capable of diffusing 



an intellectual atmosphere, or that can represent so well 
the dignity of the school, as the library. 

.Equipment. — ■ The equipment of the library should 
be chosen for service and durability. It should be so 
arranged as not to restrict the discipline or obstruct a 
complete view of the entire room. Alcoves formed by 
stacks will affect the administration, but if required for 
additional shelving, they should be placed at the ends 
of the room so that the openings are towards the libra- 
rian's desk or station. (See Figures 259 and 260.) 

The following is a summary of the equipment needed 
in every high school library : 

Tables. 

Shelving. 

Chairs. 

Charging desk. 

Librarian's desk. 

Catalogue case. 

Periodical rack. 

Atlas and dictionary case. 

Bulletin boards. 



2 Q 8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 257. — Library, Hutchinsi 



Display cases. 

Cabinets for pictures, pamphlets, etc. 

Museum cases. 

Map cases. 

Phonograph and cabinet for records. 

The tables should be arranged in rows with the ends 
parallel to the windows in order that the greater number 
may have the best lighting conditions. Also it is better 
to have a low limit to the number of pupils to each table 
for discipline and quietness. School library tables are 
30" high, and a table 3'Xs' will accommodate six pupils, 
two at each side and one at each end. 1 The unit of 
lateral measurement is 30" for each seat. Pupils may 
be seated closer, but it is not good practice to crowd 
them and expect efficient work. Elbow room is as 
essential for reading and studying as for other forms of 
work. Crowding also restricts full use of the table for. 

1 The study-room library of the San Diego High School, San Diego, Cal., provides each reader with a small individual study table. Excellent 
concentration is thus attained. 



writing and drawing. Therefore, the unit of 30" should 
be maintained in planning the table arrangement of the 
room. All furniture edges should be rounded, particu- 
larly those of tables. If the tables are made 3'Xs' it 
will be found that this size is convenient for easily re- 
arranging the equipment of the room for other activities 
than that of regular library work. (Figures 261 and 262 
show some of the possibilities.) 

Shelving. — In the reference library, the book shelving 
should extend around the room on all available wall 
space, leaving the center of the room free for tables, 
cases, and desks. On account of its attractiveness, 
wood shelving is preferable to steel. The standard 
shelving (see Figures 263 and 264) is 6' 10" high, which 
permits the use of seven shelves 8" deep, allowing 10" 
in height between shelves. The bottom shelf is usually 
fixed, and all other shelves are adjustable on one inch 



300 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




OF UBItAHY ; SOYS HIGH SCHOOL ; 3KXDiaYfl'.N;Y. 

C. R. J. 5 WTJ5X3L An.CHITI.CT 



3 CALt, 
Fig. 259. 



centers. The length of each section is 3' o". About 
10 per cent of the total shelving should be 10" deep, 
and about 4 per cent 12" deep, which will provide for 
over-sized books. All shelving should be open, with the 
exception of a few, sections which should have glass 
doors with locks for the display of rare and finely il- 
lustrated editions. 

Chairs. — This subject requires brief mention. Under 
the seat of chairs there should be a shelf for the tempo- 
rary placing of text books carried to the room by the 
students, or to provide hat space. This will keep the 
table free for active work. 

Desks. ■ — Every school library should have a charging 
desk located near the exit. (See Figures 264, 265, 266.) 
This desk should be provided with sunken charging 
trays having a roll curtain, cash drawer, registration 
tray, book shelving, drawers, and cupboards for miscel- 
laneous uses. In a very large school library, the stock 



charging desk may be found inadequate to handle the 
work of charging the loan and return of books between 
periods. It may be necessary to provide means so that 
the charging may be done by several attendants simul- 
taneously. Here the librarian's ideas on the problem 
must be taken into consideration, and a special design 
of desk worked out through the collaboration of the 
librarian and the architect. 

The librarian should be provided with a desk ample 
to provide space for her needs. Every year she orders 
hundreds of dollars worth of books, keeps numerous 
accounts, attends to correspondence, and interviews 
pupils and visitors. None of . these can be done in 
connection with the charging of books. In fact, it is 
the librarian's desk that is the center of library discipline 
and not the charging desk. The latter should be situ- 
ated as near as possible to the door which is used as the 
one exit from the room in order to expedite the work and 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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Fig. 261. — Library, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, New York. 



Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect. 




THE SCHOOL LIBRARY 




Fig. 265. — Charging Desk. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 268. — Museum Cases, Hutchixsox High School, Buffal< 



to enable the attendant, at the desk to see that no one 
takes a book from the library without first having it 
charged. The work of the charging desk constitutes the 
simplest and most mechanical part of library business, 
and it is usually deputed to student helpers or to the 
librarian's assistant. No capable school librarian should 
be doing the work of charging books. Her activity 
should center about her own desk, which, because it is 
the disciplinary center of the department, should be so 
located that from it can be commanded a view of the 
entire library room and, through the glass partition, of 
the workroom, also. 

The remaining equipment, such as the catalogue cases, 
periodical racks, bulletin boards, etc., etc., are stock 
furniture and require no description, as they are fixtures 
with which every school librarian is familiar. In 
planning the library, however, the furniture should be 
carefully shown on the preliminary drawings, and its 



location should be determined by the librarian as a 
check to show that the space allowed is adequate and 
also as an aid towards economic planning. 

Fireproofing. — Because of the great value of the 
contents of the rooms, and on account of time necessary 
to acquire a good collection of books, the library depart- 
ment should be housed in fireproof rooms. Usually a 
library fire loss is irreparable, and for that reason every 
precaution should be taken to safeguard this section of 
the school plant. It has been previously mentioned that 
the doors should be of hollow metal and wire glass, 
closing automatically. This is but one step in the right 
direction; others should be taken to have the floor 
construction of reenforced concrete, the walls of masonry 
construction, and the floors above of reenforced con- 
crete ; then a fire in another part of the building would 
very likely be controlled before seriously damaging the 
library. 



CHAPTER XV 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A. LA. 

I. Corridors, (i) Width of Corridors in Elementary Schools. (2) Minimum Widths of Corridors, Elementary Schools. (3) Width 
of Corridors, High Schools. (4) Natural Lighting of Corridors. (5) Walls of Corridors. (6) Corridor Painting. (7) Corridor 
Floors. (8) Corridor Base. (9) Picture Moldings. (10) Recesses for Radiators, (n) Bulletin Boards. (12) Doors. II. Stairs 
and Stairways. (1) Location and Number of Stairways. (2) Stairway Inclosures. (3) Width of Stairs. (4) Stair Landings. 
(5) Balustrades and Handrails. (6) Risers and Treads. (7) Lighting of Stairways. (8) Storage Spaces under Stairs. (9) Stair- 
ways in the Schools of the City of New York. (10) Inclines or Ramps. (11) Construction of Stairways and Corridors. 
III. Entrances and Exits. IV. Fire Escapes. 



Corridors. — The excellence of any school building 
plan is largely dependent upon the orderly arrangement 
of the corridors, stairways, entrances and exits. When- 
ever they are skillfully handled, the scheme immediately 
gives an impression of balance ; and whenever they are 
unskillfully arranged the absence of this feeling is just 
as apparent. Correct plans of buildings are distinguished 
by the superiority of treatment of the channels of circu- 
lation. The psychology of this is the sense of safety 
conveyed, the directness of access to the different rooms 
and floors, and the adequacy of the passages to handle 
the flow of either occupants or material. With the 
requirements at hand, usually it is simple enough to 
assign spaces bounded by corridors, so that rooms and 
departments may be properly correlated. 

The awful dread of fires in school buildings arises 
more from the anticipation of panics than from fear of 
the fire, and on this account corridors and exits should 
be planned to preclude as far as possible such dangers by 
having the corridor widths ample, the direction straight, 
and the lower termination at an exit. The time required 
to empty a building, and the number of rooms the cor- 
ridor shall accommodate are matters to be considered 
in determining the amplitude of both corridors and exits. 
Whenever it requires more than three to three and a half 
minutes to vacate a school building completely, either 
the means of evacuation and the number of exits are 
inadequate, or the fire drill is poorly organized. 
Throughout the country, there is a desire for economy 
in the planning and construction of schools. That 
desire should be responded to in every sensible way ; 
but the safety of children cannot be jeopardized by 
reducing the size of corridors and the number of 
stairways to an extent that would unwisely limit 
the possibilities for quick and orderly egress from the 
building. 



Width of Corridors in Elementary Schools. — Consider- 
ing the elementary school first : The Boston School- 
house Department requires corridors not less than eight 
feet in width for four rooms on a floor ; not less than ten 
feet in width for over four rooms ; and greater width in 
others according to their length and accessibility to 
stairs, etc. This requirement does not appear to be 
sufficiently definite, as it leaves the question open for 
debate until such time as the preliminary plans are 
presented for examination, thus leading to a waste of 
effort and time. Fixed standards of widths for corridors 
that will provide safety and comfort, and determined by 
the exact number of classrooms accommodated, should 
be arbitrarily established by laws that would forbid devi- 
ation therefrom. Accessibility to stairs is the governing 
factor in determining the width of the corridor, but 
assuming that no schoolhouse of more than one story in 
height would ever be built with less than two stairways, 
the following widths are given as a basis to work from : 

Corridors with classrooms and departmental rooms on 
one side only, accommodating four rooms or less, should 
be 0/ o" in width ; for each additional room 6" should 
be added. Corridors with rooms on each side, accommo- 
dating four rooms or less, should be c/ o" wide ; addi- 
tional two rooms, i' o" should be added to this width. 
From this may be formulated the following table : 

Minimum widths of corridors in Elementary School 
Buildings of more than one story: 

Rooms on one side only. 

Table No. 1 

Number of Rooms 

4 or less, corridor width, 9' o". 

5 or less, corridor width, 9' 6". 

6 or less, corridor width, 10' o". 

7 or less, corridor width, 10' 6". 

8 or less, corridor width, 11' o". 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



3°7 



Rooms on each side. 
Table No. 2 

4 rooms, corridor width 

6 rooms, corridor width, 10' 

8 rooms, corridor width. 
10 rooms, corridor width, 
12 rooms, corridor width, 13' 
14 rooms, corridor width, 14' 
16 rooms, corridor width, 
18 rooms, corridor width, 

It is unlikely that secondary corridors would be 
planned to accommodate more than four rooms, that 
main corridors with rooms on one side only would have 
more than six to eight classrooms to accommodate. It 
would not be economical to go beyond that number in 
planning a school of this type. For this reason, the 
corridor with rooms on each side requires more considera- 
tion. 

The minimum width of 10' o" is better if stairways 
are at either end, as the width of stairs between hand- 
rails, or between divisions of stairs in elementary schools, 
should be 4' o" or multiples of 4' o". This subject is 
further discussed under the consideration of stairways. 
When stairways are at right angles to the long axis of 
the corridor, and a stairway is provided for each bank of 
four classrooms or the equivalent in pupil capacity, it is 
possible to limit the maximum width of corridor with 
rooms on one side to 12' o" . This dimension is given to 
encourage choosing wide corridors for school buildings 
of this type, as it forestalls congestion should boards of 
education later place additional rooms on the open side 
of such passageways. In St. Louis, the Bryan Hill and 
Wm. Glasgow Jr. schools, both designed by Wm. B. 
Ittner, Architect, and excellent examples of elementary 
school planning, have the main corridors 14' o" in 
width. The former has twelve classrooms on the 
second floor and eight classrooms and kindergarten on 
the first floor ; while the Glasgow school has fourteen 
classrooms on the second floor and eleven classrooms and 
kindergarten on the first floor. The ample width of 
these corridors gives an impression of safety to these 
two plans. 

Width of Corridors in High Schools. — ■ Corridors in 
high schools should be wider than those in elementary 
schools of approximately the same number of rooms and 
pupils, on account of the larger size of the pupils and the 
undesirability of having boys and girls of high school 
age crowd together in passing and moving along the 
corridors. Secondary corridors ought to be not less 
than io' o" in width, and the width of main corridors 
which are flanked by rooms on each side should be based 
on the following table which has been compiled from 
most reliable data : 



Table No. 3 

6 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 

8 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
10 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
12 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
14 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
16 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
18 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 
20 rooms or less, corridor width, 1 

Natural Lighting of Corridors. — When rooms are only 
on one side of a corridor, there is ample natural light. 
(See Figure 269.) But when corridors have rooms on each 
side, the corridor should be lighted by spacious light 
courts, or better yet, by recesses in the plan so placed 
that each section of the corridor will be given direct 
light. Unhygienic conditions are ever present in a poorly 
lighted corridor and in those having only borrowed 
or reflected light. The feeling of danger is always 
magnified. It is not sufficient to light long corridors 
from the ends when stairways are placed there, as the 
stairs obstruct the greater part of the light. This 
obstruction is, of course, increased when the stairs are 
crowded with pupils. Whenever these conditions pre- 
vail, light should be borrowed most generously by means 
of transoms and glass panel doors, glazed with a diffusing 
glass. The latter method of lighting a corridor is war- 
ranted only in exceptional cases, such as in corridors 
of short length. It should be a fundamental principle 
in planning school buildings that corridors shall be 
properly lighted by direct light and at the same time be 
capable of ventilation with fresh air supplied by opening 
the windows. 

Corridor walls may be made to serve as the school 
galleries for the display of paintings and pieces of sculp- 
ture or the relics of archeology, and it is of course impor- 
tant that works of art should receive proper light to 
show to best advantage. Artificial light does not reveal 
to the best advantage the technical characteristics of 
either paintings or casts. The E and H shaped plans 
are by far the best forms to provide direct light to 
corridors for this purpose. 

Walls of Corridors. — Corridor walls in school build- 
ings to a point at least 5' o" above the floor are subjected 
to hard usage, and it is not an easy problem even to-day 
to find an inexpensive material that will withstand 
wear and at the same time prove sanitary and hygienic. 
Whenever the structural walls are of masonry construc- 
tion, glazed brick, bonded into the rough brickwork, 
serves very well. The joints, however, eventually 
become dark, and offer lodging places for dust and dirt. 
When glazed bricks are used, they should be laid so the 
face of the wall is flush with the finished plaster. Glazed 
or vitreous tile wainscoting gives a smooth and pleasing 
surface, but the ordinary glazed tile is easily subject to 



3 o8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The expense, however, of such surfacing is 
almost prohibitive in a school of large floor area or for 
general construction. Burlap, glued on to a plaster 
wall, is often used, and if it is specially prepared for 
such work and is properly applied, will last for a long 
time. But when it starts to peel off, the corridor presents 
an unsightly appearance. Cement plaster and hard 
wall plaster are most commonly used as the finish of 
corridor walls, and were it not for the susceptibility of 
plaster to damage, it would be the most satisfactory 
surface. Wood wainscoting, if of hard wood and with 
some attention to the design, makes not only a pleasing 
finish for school corridor walls, but will also withstand the 
ordinary rough usage. • On the other hand, its use in 
a fireproof or semi-fireproof school, of course, nullifies 
the efforts to minimize the fire hazards. 
CLASS HOOiV 5IDL, 



In high schools, where the depth of wall is 12" or more, 
the corridor walls are often planned to hold built-in 
lockers. This admirably serves as a durable wainscot 
and is much favored by many school administrators. If 
the lockers are of metal construction and are flush with 
the plaster above and with a cement base at the floor, 
the prevailing sanitary conditions are especially good. 
Such lockers should have recessed handles in order to 
avoid injury to clothing or person. (See Figure 270.) 

Corridor Painting. — The walls and ceilings should 
be treated in light colors so as to reflect the greatest 
possible amount of light. A pleasing stencil of decora- 
tive ornament will enhance the appearance and enliven 
the walls of these long spaces. As previously mentioned, 
the corridor should be the art gallery of the school. 
Consequently, any special decoration of the walls should 




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Fig. 270 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



309 



be in good taste and in keeping with the character and 
the grade of the school. A tone of refinement will 
prevail throughout the school if discernment and judg- 
ment are exercised in selecting quiet, harmonious colors, 
and appropriate decoration for corridors and entrances. 

Corridor Floors. — Were it not that cost is constantly 
the perplexing question, it would be simple enough to 
choose the materials for any and all structures. Under 
the heading, " Construction of Corridors," floors will 
be discussed again. At this point it ought to be noted 
that floors of corridors should be of a material or compo- 
sition of materials which is washable, permanent, resil- 
ient, noiseless as possible when walked upon, and possess- 
ing pleasing and lasting color. It should also be capable 
of local repair without entailing high cost or the removal 
of a large part of the surface. 

Marble and ceramic tile are rarely considered on 
account of cost and the danger of accident on the 
slippery surface. Moreover, the noise from walking 
on marble or tile will prove distracting to adjacent 
classrooms. Whenever marble is used, the exposed 
surface should be honed. 

Cement is dusty unless treated with a successful 
floor hardener and then painted with at least three good 
coats of a good concrete floor paint. It will also be 
found that cement surfaces for corridor floors will 
require frequent repainting, and that generally they 
should be avoided. 

Terrazzo, which is made of marble or granite chips, 
coarse sand, and cement, makes a fairly good and endur- 
ing corridor floor. Unless the floor area is divided off 
into panels about 10 feet in length and formed with 
marble strips or separately laid borders of terrazzo, 
cracks, due to expansion and contraction of the cement, 
are bound to occur. This is true of cement floors as 
well as of terrazzo. Terrazzo and cement are more 
nearly noiseless than either marble or tile and may be 
easily cleaned. 

Magnesium compositions are resilient, make pleasing 
floors to walk upon and reflect very little noise. But 
the important factor in using composition flooring is to 
be able to select the right kind of the many makes and 
to have experienced and capable mechanics perform the 
work. Battleship linoleum is probably the most adapt- 
able and gives the best results for the costs, as it meets 
nearly all the requirements of a corridor floor for school 
buildings. Cork tile is by far the best of all the materials 
were it not for the expense. At normal times it costs 
about seventy cents a square foot when laid in large 
quantities. It has all the good qualities of battleship 
linoleum and is more permanent. A good compromise 
is to lay cork tile flooring 6' o" wide along the center of 
the corridor and flank this with wood or terrazzo flooring 



to the base. Then the noise of walking in the corridor 
during recitation or study periods will not disturb the 
pupils in the classrooms. When the corridor floor must 
be of wood it should be laid with maple flooring 2z"xW', 
tongued and grooved and thoroughly oiled, or treated 
frequently with linseed oil and petroleum naphtha. 
Wood floors should never be washed unless just prior 
to oiling, as the flooring shrinks and leaves cracks for 
dirt. 

Corridor Base. — Unless the floor is of wood con- 
struction, all corridor and stairway bases should be of 
cement, terrazzo, or glazed tile, coved at the floor and 
rounded at the top, or better yet, flush with the wall 
line above. Whenever lockers are built into the walls, 
they should be set on top of the sanitary base. Where 
it is obligatory to install a wood base, there should be 
either a wood coved shoe at the floor, or a quarter round 
or similar molding nailed to the floor, so that cleaning 
at the angles formed by the floor and the base may be 
done effectively. 

Picture Moldings. — All corridors should have picture 
moldings for the hanging of pictures or casts of sculpture. 

Recesses for Radiators, etc. — Radiators, hose reels, 
drinking-fountains, and supports for fire extinguishers 
should be recessed into the walls of the corridors. No 
obstruction, whatever, should be permitted to interfere 
with the full width of the passageway. 

Bulletin Boards. — Corridor walls, when well lighted, 
near the administration offices, are splendid locations 
for large bulletin boards for the posting of notices by 
the principal and the officers of the various student 
organizations. These bulletin boards may be either 
long blackboards, equipped as in classrooms, or cork 
mats. 

Doors. — All doors opening into the corridors should 
be hung with hinges that will permit the doors to swing 
back the full 180 degrees against the wall, and they 
should be provided with fasteners to hold them in that 
position. This necessitates hanging the doors flush 
with the corridor wall surface. 

All fire doors opening into the storage rooms, boiler 
rooms, from corridors or to stairs leading to the boiler 
rooms should be of hollow metal construction or metal- 
covered on both sides, and the frames should be similarly 
made. There ought to be some design to these doors 
on the corridor side'so as not to mar the general appear- 
ance of the corridor. When such doors have the upper 
panel in glass they should be glazed with corrugated 
wire glass, \" thick. All such doors should open into 
the room or stairs from the corridor and should close 
automatically. Such construction will prevent the 
passage of smoke into the corridor, should a fire or 
explosion occur in the boiler room. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Stairs and Stairways. — A school building may be in fireproofed materials, or of reenforced concrete, and 

what is generally recognized as a fire-resisting structure its floors and exterior walls of concrete or masonry 

and yet be a hazardous building for the occupants, construction ; the interior partitions and finish are made 

This may be easily demonstrated. Imagine a school of incombustible materials. What advantage would 

building with its structural members of steel encased there be in the fireproof part of the construction if the 

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Fig. 271. 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



3" 



stairways were inadequate, or improperly constructed ? qualified to discuss this feature of school building, states 



The more serious danger is always from the effects of 
panic rather than from fire. The only advantage would 
be in the failure of dead bodies to burn or in the lessening 
of some causes for a general fire. The story of every 
tragedy connected with fires in public buildings has 
been, that after the fire was discovered, a panic followed, 
and the stairs and exits became jammed or were cut off 
by smoke and fire. Panics are of course not always 
avoidable so long as the human mind is subject to fright, 
but the physical conditions conducive to them can be 
obviated if careful attention is given to direct and 
adequate means of safety. And it is therefore a public 
duty that all concerned give this particular factor just 
consideration when the merits of a school plan are being 
considered. It is highly probable that but a small 
percentage of schools to be built in the next fifty years 
will be entirely of fire-resisting construction. The tax 
burden would be too heavy. Beyond the fire limits of a 
city, it is not absolutely necessary to use such construc- 
tion, if the building is not more than two stories above 
the basement, if precautionary methods are adopted in 
the design of the vital parts of the structure, and if there 
are ample stairways so that the building may be vacated 
quickly and with safety. The country is so far behind 
the educational requirements for housing facilities, that 
in order to catch up, it will be necessary to have to 
resort to extraordinary measures. These measures will 
be extraordinary because they must involve the construc- 
tion of a great number of buildings which will meet all 
educational demands, and at the same time be safe, 
economical, and satisfactory in design as public build- 
ings. One of the most important details in this new 
building movement, and one of the first to be mastered, 
is the matter of the location and number of stairways. 

Location and Number of Stairways. — In examining 
the work in school construction of men of wide expe- 
rience, it is noticeable that a stairway is provided for 
three and not more than four classrooms, or the equiva- 
lent of one stairway for every 120 to 140 pupils. Also 
the stairs are generally located so that should any one 
section of the building be cut off by fire or smoke, other 
sections and stairs are easily, accessible for safety. The 
lower number of 1 20 pupils to a stairway for a three-story 
building, and the higher number, 140 pupils, for one of a . 
two-story building, provides ample means of egress from 
the school at critical times. When a school is more 
than three stories in height, the number and location 
of stairs becomes a special problem and must be treated 
as such. Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect of the Schools 
of the City of New York, a man who, on account of 
conditions prevailing in that city, is most eminently 



that, " Our practice has been to estimate stair require- 
ments on the basis of fifteen square feet per pupil for all 
rooms or spaces used for academic or other instruction. 
Frequent tests with a stop watch have shown that the 
capacity of a properly designed and built four-foot 
stairway (for elementary schools) can be readily counted 
upon at the rate of 100 pupils in 25 seconds, or 240 
pupils per minute. In practice this is taken at 100 
pupils in 50 seconds or 120 pupils per minute for each 
stair of four feet in width." * 

From this it is evident that, if 120 pupils, marching 
two abreast, will pass a given point in a minute, that 
should be the number of pupils assigned to a stairway 
at the third floor in order to empty the building in 
three minutes, and in not more than three and one-half 
minutes after the alarm has been sounded. If the pupils 
on the second floor are forced by circumstances to use 
the same stairway as the children on the third floor, the 
progress of exit of the third floor pupils will be delayed 
accordingly, and under the most favorable drilling, any 
delay will quickly consume the safe time limit of egress 
and lead to impatience, which is the first sign of danger. 
Consequently, in planning for stairways, the architect 
should be informed of the formation and order of school 
fire drills, and he should then study to what extent the 
plan will permit changes in the line of march without 
causing confusion or congestion. Stairways should be 
located so that the distance between them and the 
groups of rooms accommodated is as short and direct 
as possible. It is not unusual to find they have been 
placed in some inconvenient, out-of-the-way corner, 
inadaptable to any other purpose, with no thought of 
their distance from rooms or of the number of pupils 
or rooms served by them. In studying the problem, 
the assumption should be frequently made that one or 
two stairways have been cut off by fire, smoke, or acci- 
dent, after which the adequacy of the remaining stair- 
ways should be estimated. A test of this kind will 
quickly bring to light whether or not pupils in rooms or 
groups of rooms may become trapped. It is far better to 
take these measures into account when the preliminary 
drawings are presented for inspection than to wait until 
contracts are awarded or after the building is erected. 

Stairway Enclosures. — With the possible exception 
of the main entrance stairways, extending from the 
ground floor to the first floor only, all stairways in build- 
ings of more than two stories should be enclosed through- 
out the height of the building with wire glass and metal 
partitions, and the doors should always swing out towards 
the stairs and automatically close. When metal doors 
and metal partitions are found to be too expensive, 



r presented before the National Fire Protective Association's Twentieth Annual Meeting, Chicago, III., May 9th, 1016. 



3 I2 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



hard wood and wire glass should be substituted. Double 
swinging doors should be prohibited. The upper panels 
of all doors to stairways should be glazed with clear 
wire glass.- Such doors should be equipped with push 
plates on the corridor side and pulls on handles on the 
stair side. Locks or fasteners to hold the doors either 
open or closed should not be allowed. If stairways are 
protected in this manner to shut off smoke and fire, 
and if they lead directly to exits, the pupils will be well 
protected. 

Width of Stairs. — There is some question whether 
the width of stairs in elementary schools should be 
limited to 4' o" or 5' o" as a maximum width between 
handrails on walls and balustrades. The reason for 
establishing either of these widths is that it is less 
dangerous if children march outdoors from their rooms 
two abreast. When marching three or more abreast, 
the center child has no hand-rail support and is likely 
to stumble and throw the entire formation into a jam, 
with the result of blocking further movement if not 
creating a panic and disaster. The writer is of the 
opinion that elementary schools, from the first to the 
sixth grades inclusive, should have all stairs or divisions 
of stairs between hand-rails on walls and balustrades 
4' o" in width ; in junior high or intermediate schools 
4' 6" in width ; and in high schools 5' o" in width. 
These widths will then compel the files to be limited to 
two abreast, which is the right way to march pupils 
from schools. Whenever stairways are wider than the 
above dimensions, the widths should be of multiples of 
4/0", 4' 6", 5' o", such as 8' o", 9/0", or 10' o"; 
they should be divided by a center railing or balustrade 
as is shown in Figure 271, and the railing should extend 
to the outside walls of the landings or follow the run of 
the stairs, depending on the design of the stairway. 
Stairways at the ends of corridors are generally limited to 
the width of the corridor, while stairways at right angles 
to the long axis of the corridor may be of any desirable 
width over-all. This statement, however, should not be 
considered a contradiction of the above estimate of the 
maximum width of divisions of stairs given in the tables, 
for regardless of the number of divisions, the maximum 
width of any division should not be greater than neces- 
sary for two abreast. It is a good plan to avoid having 
main stairways extend to the basement near the boiler 
rooms. Boiler rooms and rooms connected with or 
near the boiler room should be accessible by flights of 
stairs entirely separate from the stairs used by the 
pupils, and, as has been previously mentioned, they 
should be controlled by self-closing fire doors. 
sStair Landings. — All stairways should have landings 
the width of the stairs and at one-half the story height. 
All these landings should be level. The corners or angles 



should be rounded or made octagonal so that a pupil 
cannot be pocketed during a rush. Winders, under no 
circumstances, should be permitted. A straight run of 
stairs with a landing is almost as bad as though it had no 
break in the flight. If a child should stumble above the 
landing or at the top, he would undoubtedly fall the 
entire length of the stairs. This type is uneconomical 
in consumption of floor area and in construction, besides 
being dangerous. Landings at floor levels should be 
spacious enough to give the enclosure doors full swing in 
order to allow space necessary for the free passage of the 
pupils on the stairs and those coming into and leaving 
them. When stairways are placed at the ends of cor- 
ridors it is frequently convenient to place toilet rooms 
and closets at the level of the landing. This is hazardous, 
for often little or no attention is given to the swing 
of the doors, and if they open on to the landing, there is 
great danger of obstructing the stairs and causing con- 
fusion in the march out of the building. If the doors 
to such rooms occur on landings, they should be made to 
open into the room and not onto the landing ; even 
should this be done, a frightened child may mistake such 
a door as a means of escape. Therefore, for safety 
there should be no doors, openings, or recesses in the 
stairway walls except at the entrances and exits of the 
stairway at the floor levels. Seats on landings to serve 
as resting spots or nooks for sporadic studying are a 
menace, and regardless of such thoughtfulness for 
comfort, should never be permitted. Likewise pedestals 
for urns, flower pots, or any other obstacles to a clear 
passage should be eliminated. 

Balustrades and Hand-rails. — Outside balustrades to 
stairs should be of closed construction. (Figure 272.) 
The open balustrade of iron bars or grilles give no 
protection to girls from those at lower levels. Further- 
more, open balustrades provide lodgment for dust, and 
as janitor service is not always efficient in school build- 
ings, it is better to adopt the closed balustrade. Balus- 
trades on the outside, forming the stair well, should be 
at least 3' 4" above the nosing of the tread to prevent 
children falling from haste or crowding. The top of 
the balustrade should have a rounded hand-rail with 
square or rounded blocks for projections, spaced about 
4' o" apart to prevent boys sliding down the top of the 
balustrade and possibly falling the full height of the 
stair well. Unless this is done, a fireproof glazed parti- 
tion should extend to the ceiling above the balustrade 
or from the stair stringer. This is, however, too ex- 
pensive for general adoption. Two hand-rails for use 
by larger and smaller children should be securely at- 
tached to the walls of the balustrades and to the side 
walls of the stairway. The top hand-rail should be 
about 2' 6" above the tread, and on a line with the 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



3i3 




-Double Stairway, Schenley 



face of the riser; the lower hand-rail for the smaller 
children should be about 8" to 10" lower. If all princi- 
pals would place the higher grades on the upper floors, 
the double run of hand-rails might not be necessary 
except for the lower flights of stairs ; but we often find 
that school principals differ in their administrative 
methods. Stairways, if properly constructed, should 
be built so that if changes occur in the management or 
organization of the school, the safety of the pupils 
remains unaffected. 

Risers and Treads. — In elementary schools, the height 
of the riser should not be more than 6", and in junior 
and senior high schools the height should never exceed 
7" ; it is much easier for climbing if they too are limited 
to 6". There are times in the construction of high 
schools when a compromise between 6" and 7" is neces- 
sary, but no riser heights should exceed 7". The width 
of the tread is complementary to the height of the riser. 
Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, sixteenth 
edition, edited by Professor Thomas Nolan, of the 



High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 
University of Pennsylvania, states : " The width of the 
run should be determined by the height of the rise ; the 
less the rise, the greater should be the run and vice- versa. 
Several rules have been given for proportioning the run 
to the rise : 

" (1) The sum of the rise and the run should be equal 
to from 17" to i7j". 

" (2) The sum of two risers and a tread should not be 
less than 24" nor more than 25". 

" (3) The product of the rise and run should not be less 
than 70" and not more than 75". These rules apply to 
stairs with nosings." 

From this it would seem that for a 6" rise the tread 
should be from 11" to i\\" , and for a 7" rise the tread 
should be from 10" to 10^-". The measurement of a 
tread is either from nosing to nosing, or from riser to 
riser, and not from the riser to the nosing. For exterior 
stone or cement steps, the risers should be not more 
than from 5" to $%" , and the treads not less than 12" 
in width. 



314 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





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CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



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The material for stair treads is somewhat dependent 
upon the type of construction of the stairs. If the stairs 
are of iron or steel, the iron tread may be formed to 
receive asphalt, which makes a fine non-slipping tread 
and can easily be replaced or repaired, or of North River 
blue stone, magnesium composition, or of cork. Cork 
treads require a metal nosing or flange, as do^s asphalt, 
which is usually a part of the steel stair construction 
and set about |" below the level of the tread. A danger 
of tripping exists here when the surface of the tread 
becomes worn. Slate and marble treads will not with- 
stand the wear, and marble does not supply enough 
friction for safety. When the stair structure is of con- 
crete, the treads are usually of cement finish or of 
terrazzo, with a " safety tread " consisting of steel and 
corrugations filled in with lead or carborundum and set 
flush with the finish of the tread. The " safety tread " 
is placed at the outside of the tread and kept about 4" 
away from the walls. 

Lighting of Stairways. — Stairways should be well 



lighted naturally and electrically. (See Figure 272.) 
Any attempt to architecturally treat the exterior walls • 
of stairways with long, narrow windows for special effect 
should be frowned upon. Plenty of daylight will often 
dispel fear. The old proverb that " danger lurks in 
dark places " is quite applicable to stairways. Interior 
stairways, not directly lighted, should never be permitted, 
regardless of the exigency. Whenever schools are near 
or adjacent to other buildings, the window frames and 
sash should be of metal and glazed with wire glass. This 
will prevent smoke from filling in stairways should a 
fire occur on the outside. The electric lights in corridors 
and stairways should be of ample wattage to provide a 
high illumination. Whenever service from two power 
companies is to be had, the outlets in corridors, stairways, 
and assembly halls should be wired from both sources 
of supply so that, should the service in one fail, there 
would be sufficient light to prevent serious accidents. 
This can be accomplished by having more than one lamp 
in each fixture and by dividing the lamps between the 



3*8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



different circuits, This is more necessary since the 
school has come to be used as much in the evening as 
during the day. 

Storage Spaces under Stairs. — There is no better 
way to plan for a calamity in a school than to use the 
space under stairs for janitor's closets. Such spaces 
should be either sealed or left entirely open to view. 

Stairways in the Schools of City of New York. — Much 
credit is due to Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, Architect for the 
Board of Education of the City of New York, for his 
contributions to schoolhouse planning and construction. 
His fireproof stairways, which so admirably provide for 
the safety of the occupants of schools that .are special 
problems in the congested sections of that city, are 
decidedly ingenious. Figure 273 shows the construction 
and runs of these stairs. " The stairways are all of 
steel with cut stone or asphalt treads, and are enclosed 
from bottom to top with partitions on the corridor side 
made of wire glass set in steel frames, access being had 
to each floor landing by means of fireproof doors, all 
fitted with automatic checks and springs. This arrange- 
ment of stairways permits of a great saving in floor 
space and, while quite confusing to a stranger, is highly 
appreciated by the teacher who finds in them the cer- 
tainity of easy and complete control of the pupils, and 
the pupils themselves quickly realize the fact that in 
these stairways lies perfect safety from the perils of 
fire, smoke, or overcrowding." J 

Inclines or Ramps. — Inclines, unless placed in 
separate towers, are not practical for school buildings, 
and even then, are out of all reason in cost compared to 
the cost of well-built stairways. The proof of this lies 
in the floor space necessary to accommodate the rise and 
run of the incline. For instance, no ramp or incline 
should be installed when the slope is greater than 1 to 8. 
In other words, for every foot of height there should be 
8 feet of run ; for a story height of 14' 3", the horizontal 
distance traveled back and forth should equal 114 feet; 
for two stories 228 feet. Just what might happen at 
the turns, and particularly if the incline is steep, is 
entirely problematical. 

Construction of Stairways and Corridors. — Notwith- 
standing an inclination to economize in the construction 
of school buildings, boards of education should deliberate 
on the wisdom of sane measures in safeguarding the 
lives of the occupants even if they involve some additional 
expense. One disaster is sufficient to cause a revulsion 
of feeling towards those in authority who consciously 
or unconsciously measure expense against safety of life. 
Very often, without a reliable estimate of the cost of the 
proposed buildings, requirements are established and 
bond issues set and placed before the electors, only to 



find, when it is too late, that the fixed amount is not 
sufficient to provide the necessary facilities. The usual 
recourse then is not only to reduce the number and often 
the size of rooms, but what is worse, to eliminate sub- 
stantial construction in the parts of the building needing 
that sort of construction to assure safety. Architects 
are often as culpable as the laymen, and perhaps even 
more so, by underestimating the value of the work either 
through a desire to impress boards favorably or by a 
failure to grasp the many additional requirements of 
a school building beside rooms for instruction. The 
corridors and stairways should be the last section of the 
building to be cut in construction. The reader is 
requested to keep in mind that the author has a keen 
realization of the difference between substantial and 
extravagant planning and construction. What is set 
forth as substantial construction is intended to mean the 
actual, economical use of materials in a manner that will 
serve the purpose without embellishment. The addi- 
tional percentage, in cost of building the corridor floors 
of reinforced concrete supported by reinforced concrete 
columns, and stairways of the same construction or of 
fireproof steel is small when compared with the total 
cost of the building. Corridor and stairway walls like- 
wise should be of fireproof construction, whether of 
masonry, concrete, or metal lath and plaster. The last 
is not as desirable for the walls of stairways as brick or 
concrete, as the plaster applied to these materials is 
less subject to injury, and they are essentially fire 
resisting materials. 

Entrances and Exits. — Entrances and exits to stairs 
and corridors should be like the wide end of a funnel. 
(See Figures 274, 275, and 276.) Particularly is this true 
of main entrances where corridors intersect, and at corri- 
dor entrances to assembly halls and rooms provided for 
large assemblages. Doors at entrances and exits should 
always open outwards and be equipped with panic 
bolts. Top and bottom bolts applied to the standing 
leaves of double doors are positively dangerous unless 
these bolts are controlled by panic bolt levers which 
cause the bolts to slide and the doors to fly open when 
the pressure of the body is applied to the horizontal 
levers, which should be about 3' o" above the floor. 
Double acting and revolving doors at entrances to 
schools should be prohibited. Where inclosed vesti- 
bules are necessary to exclude the cold drafts of winter 
and a double set of doors is necessary, the vestibule 
should be wide enough to allow plenty of room for the 
inner doors to swing clear and then sufficient space left 
to give room to the vestibule. The inner set of doors 
should have no locks, and their equipment should consist 
of a push plate on the inside, and a pull handle on the 



1 Mr. Snyder in Modern School Houses. 



CORRIDORS, STAIRWAYS, AND ENTRANCES 



3*9 



outside, with a door check to automatically close the 
doors. All exterior doors should have some fastening 
device to hold them open when this is desired. 

Fire Escapes. — A school building that requires fire 
escapes is an example of decidedly bad planning. The 
danger of falling from them is always so great they can 
never take the place of stairways, for children are not 
trained to use them. Fire marshals, experienced chiefs 



of fire departments, and those whose duty it is to 
fight fire, have generally agreed that they should not 
be used, except on old school buildings and then only 
when it is not practical to install stairways. When 
they are used, they should be 4/ o" wide and en- 
closed with wire glass and metal frames and equipped 
like a fireproof stairway. They then become outside 
stair towers. 



CHAPTER XVI 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 

By John J. Donovan, B.S., Architect, A. LA. 

I. Assembly Hall. II. Assembly Hall for Elementary School. III. Assembly Hall for Junior and Regular High Schools. 
(i) Seating Capacity. (2) Height. (3) Floor. (4) Divisions. (5) Location. IV. Stage. (1) Size of Stage. (2) Moving 
Picture Screen. (3) Control of Lights. V. Acoustics. (1) Source of Sound. (2) Control of Sound Waves. (3) Absorption 
of Sound Waves. (4) Coefficients of Absorption. (5) Reflecting Surfaces. (6) Wall Surfaces. VI. Organs. VII. Quietness. 
VIII. Moving Pictures. (1) Equipment and Current. (2) Construction. IX. Lighting and Illumination. X. Aisles. 
XL Exits. XII. Painting and Decoration. 



Assembly Hall. — No modern school can be properly 
equipped without an assembly hall. This part of the 
school organization has proved its worth. Its activ- 
ities, fully as much as the activities of the classrooms, 
have stimulated young students to lives of useful 
endeavor. No other division of the intellectual equip- 
ment can exert a stronger moral influence on the student 
body. It is a kind of clearing house of ideas ; a place 
of action, where the theories of learning are turned 
into realities. Nor is its use confined to the school 
alone. Without it many a community would be with- 
out a decent, safe, and comfortable hall to gather in. 
The old idea, that the assembly hall, like the old- 
fashioned family parlor, was a room to be used only 
on very special occasions, has given way to the realiza- 
tion that it should be used most intensively, not only 
during the day, but in the evenings and on Sundays 
as well. As the unfolding spirit of Democracy comes 
more and more to find expression in community singing, 
the organ will before long be considered as much a 
necessity in the school assembly hall as the moving 
picture booth is at the present time. When this point 
is reached, the assembly hall will offer the full value 
of its construction in terms of service to the day 
school, the continuation and evening schools, and to the 
community in community activities. 

In the consideration of the appointments of an 
assembly hall, the question of the kind of stage to be 
built is of first importance. With the expansion of the 
modern school, the simple lecture platform can no 
longer be considered sufficient. It cannot possibly 
be made to answer the increasing uses to which the 
assembly hall is being put. The modern high school 
assembly hall stage must have all the essentials of a 
theater stage to provide the student with the appro- 



priate environments for dramatic expression. The 
public is awake to the advantages of the assembly 
hall and appreciative of the pleasure derived from its 
use when it is constructed with good acoustical quality. 
The means and the knowledge are at hand, so that all 
such rooms may be built and finished- to possess not 
only architectural merit but acoustical merit as well. 

Whether or not every school should have an assembly 
hall is a question that is usually decided affirmatively 
by educators, but often to the contrary by those 
responsible for the tax rate. However, every school 
should have some arrangement for convocations, and 
if it is not possible at first to build an assembly hall, 
the dividing partitions of a number of classrooms 
should be constructed with folding doors so that two ' 
or three rooms may be formed into one long room. 
This plan is not very satisfactory, and on account of 
its limitations, is merely better than nothing at all. 
Whenever an assembly hall must be omitted, arrange- 
ment should be made in the general plan so that it 
can be added without becoming a misfit or seriously 
affecting the symmetry of the building. 

Assembly Hall for Elementary Schools. — Elementary 
schools of five or more classrooms should have an 
assembly hall in order that the principal may call the 
school together for talks, or for choral instruction by 
the music teacher. The small school assembly hall 
should be simple in character and should be equipped 
with a small stage, moving picture booth, level floor, 
and movable chairs. The room can then be used for 
folk dancing and games by the pupils, and for social 
meetings by the community. The assembly hall for 
the large elementary school should be much the same, 
except that it should have a greater seating capacity. 
It is a question whether or not the hall should be capable 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



321 



of seating the entire school enrollment. For elementary 
schools a seating capacity of four-sevenths of the 
enrollment is probably the correct estimate, as the 
pupils of the lower grades are usually excused from the 
general convocations. 

Assembly Hall for Junior and Senior High Schools. 
— It is, however, in the assembly hall for the junior and 
senior high schools that good planning is most essential. 



It is absolutely necessary that auditoriums for high 
schools should be large enough to seat slightly more than 
the entire school enrollment, including the teaching staff, 
so as to provide for the future growth of the school. 
Any high school is at a great disadvantage if the entire 
school cannot be called together at the same time to 
hear an influential speaker or to discuss, as a student 
body, matters concerning the welfare of the school. 




7///////// ////// A 



V//////S/A X////A Y////////J/ 



L, O £> h Y ■ 



•MAIfl II TIAHCI, • 



riiST- r LQQIL -PLAN 



LAILGi HIGH SCHOOL ASStJOLY HAIL SLATlflG -Z, ZOO -5TU DOTS 

Fig. 277. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Nl a l h 



c o a, it 1.5 o a 






Si-CONP FLOOH OIL BALCONY PLAN 



LAHGL HIGH SCHOOL ASSEMBLY- HALL SLATING ZZQO 3TUDLNTS 

Fig. 278. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



323 



Seating Capacity. — To determine the seating capac- 
ity, an allowance of 6| square feet per seat is generally- 
adopted for seats in straight rows, and about 7^ square 
feet for those in curved rows. These dimensions pro- 
vide for aisles, are confined to fixed seats, and do 
not include the space for the stage. Movable chairs 
will require a larger unit of measurement. Also a 
greater allowance should be made for tablet chairs. 
Assembly hall or theater chairs are made 19", 20", 
21", and 22" wide. From this it is evident that, in 
order to seat a school of 1200, the main floor would 
have to be about 60' wide X 75' long ; this area would 
accommodate approximately 700, leaving it for the 
balcony to seat the remaining 500. In order to seat 
a school of 2000, the main floor should be about ioo' 
wide X 75' long, a space which would comfortably 
seat 1200. The balcony must extend well out over 
the main floor and return along the sides to the pro- 
scenium wall in order to accommodate the remaining 
800. More than one balcony is not desirable, for it 
is always difficult to preserve order and hold the at- 
tention of pupils seated in the upper balcony or the 
gallery, as it is usually termed to distinguish it from 
the balcony proper. 

Height. — The height of the assembly hall should be 
governed somewhat by the architectural treatment of the 
room, but more so by the correct cubic space necessary 
to provide for adequate ventilation. Thirty cubic feet 
of air per minute per person and six changes per hour 
are the standards generally required and adopted. A 
hall ioo' X 75', seating 2000, would require a height 
of about 40' above the stage level in order to meet the 
requirements of 150 cubic feet of space per seat, which 
is a moderate allowance. Some ordinances require 
200 cubic feet per seat. Very often the noise of ven- 
tilating systems in assembly halls is due to the attempt 
to provide a volume of air computed upon the seating 
capacity without consideration of the cubical contents 
of the room. There are other causes such as poor 
engineering and faulty mechanical installations, but it 
is evident that the ventilating system will be handi- 
capped if the cubic capacity of the room is too low. 
There is a tendency to cut down on the heights of 
assembly halls in order to reduce the cubage of the 
building, but it should be observed that this practice 
affects the acoustics of the room as well as the ventilation. 

Floor. — Whenever the seating capacity of the main 
floor is greater than 500, the floor should be sloped or 
made saucer-shaped, and the seats should be set on 
steps. Otherwise, it is necessary to elevate the stage 
to an abnormal height, and even then a full view of the 
stage floor will be obstructed by the footlight apron. 
It is very important that every occupant of the audi- 



torium have a clear view of t the stage. With a sloping 
or saucer-shaped floor, the level of the eye should be 
established at a height of 4' o" above the level of the 
steps for the seats, with each step 4" above the one in 
front. This will provide unobstructed views and de- 
termine the slope of the curved section of the saucer. 
The height of the stage is established 3' 9" to 4' o" 
above the low point of the assembly hall floor at a point 
located about 5' o" back of the apron. From this 
height lines of vision are drawn to every row of seats. 

Divisions. — The numerous uses to which the assembly 
hall is put have brought about the very practical divi- 
sion of the main floor into three sections as shown in 
Figs. 277 and 278. This division requires the use of 
rolling partitions back of the balcony supports and a 
small stage or rostrum at the front end of each of 
the side sections. By having especially deep recesses 
in the vertical frames of the rolling partitions, the three 
sections may be used at the same time with very little 
disturbance to any section. 

Location. — For safety the main entrance of the 
assembly hall should be on a level with the first floor. 
It is a serious mistake to have it higher than this, for 
then the lives of the occupants will be jeopardized if 
for any reason it should be necessary for the entire 
audience to descend stairs within the building in order 
to reach the exits quickly. Usually the room is 
placed on axis with the main entrance for convenience 
to the pupils and the public. If the hall is used to any 
extent by the latter, collapsible iron gates should be 
installed across the corridors to prevent outsiders from 
wandering through other parts of the school building. 
Not infrequently the assembly hall occupies an end of the 
general plan, or projects in front of the school. Some- 
times it may be a detached building connected to the 
main building by a cloister or an inclosed arcade. These 
schemes give more direct access to the room for the public, 
and there is then very little opportunity for promiscuous 
roaming through the school. The Technical High 
School, Oakland, California, the Oak Park School, 
Sacramento, California, and the Elko County High 
School, Elko, Nevada, are examples of three different 
methods of locating the assembly hall as above described. 

The Stage. — For the lower grade schools, the rostrum 
at the end of the hall or the stage with small dressing 
rooms at the side and a moving picture screen may suffice 
for the activities within the hall. But for the junior 
and senior high schools, an effort should be made to 
provide form and equipment in order to widen the pos- 
sibilities for development in expression, interpretation, 
and dramatics. 

The semi-inclosed stage, with the space so limited as 
to be suitable for graduation exercises or speaking and 



324 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



singing programs, will not meet the requirements of the 
modern high school. Consequently, there should be 
no obstructions to a free use of scenery suspended from 
a gridiron above. 

Size. — For a school of 2000 the stage should be about 
4o'Xioo' within the stage walls. The stage can then be 
used as a gymnasium, and if the proscenium opening is of 
ample width (about 65 feet), athletic contests such as 
basket ball, handball, volley ball, and even tennis may 
be played, with the audience comfortably seated in the 
auditorium. If a gridiron is installed, its height above 
the stage should be a few feet more than twice the height 
of the proscenium opening, and a space of about 6' 6" 
above the grids should be allowed for adjusting scenery 
tackle and blocks. The pin-rails and pin-rail balconies 
should be installed at the time of constructing the 
building. It is wise, however, to limit the scenery to 
two changes (interior and exterior sets) until the school 
performances bring returns for additional scenery 
equipment. 

Moving Picture Screen. — The moving picture screen 
and machine are discussed under the chapter on Physics, 
but it should be noted that the screen should be rigidly 
fastened at the lower edge to the stage floor at an angle 
nearly perpendicular to the lantern's rays. 

Control of Lights. — Footlights, border lights, and all 
illumination in the hall should be controlled at the main 
switchboard on the stage and in the moving picture 
booth. This operation requires on the switchboard an 
automatic electrically controlled switch, which in turn 
can be operated by a simple switch in the moving 
picture booth. 

To some it may seem that equipping an assembly 
hall stage in this manner borders on extravagance, but 
a number of years of close relation with the large high 
school and acquaintance with the many educational 
activities related to the assembly hall prompts the 
writer to advocate the furnishing of facilities which 
will aid the development of the large number of students 
who will never have the opportunity to attend a univer- 
sity. Moreover, from the point of view of expense, the 
cost will be outbalanced by the uses to which the large 
well-equipped stage can be put. The smaller rostrum, 
with its many restrictions, can never be as satisfactory. 

Acoustics. — This subject, on account of its technical 
character, will not admit of more than a simple, practical 
explanation of how to treat the interior surfaces of the 
assembly hall in order to obtain the proper acoustical 
quality for the room. 1 Much attention has been at- 
tracted to this matter during the last two decades on 



account of the noticeable lack of acoustical qualities 
of many school assembly halls and large public audi- 
toriums in which audiences have heard indistinctly 
and sometimes not at all. This condition has been 
caused largely by the use of certain materials that have 
been favored by building ordinances because they are 
good fire retardants, and by builders because they 
require less effort in preparation and erection. Among 
these are metal lath, gypsum, plaster, plaster on brick, 
terra cotta tile, brick, and glass. Now while these 
materials have excellent qualities for the retardation 
of fire and for expedition in building, at the same time 
they have very low coefficients of the absorption of 
sound waves, and hence afford poor acoustical conditions 
for the halls in which they are used. 

Source of Sound. — Sound is a form of energy that sets 
in motion the ether waves of space, by means of which it 
is carried to its final destination. These sound waves 
move in all directions, assuming spherical form after 
leaving the source, a single note or uttered syllable setting 
up an infinite number. Very few of them travel directly 
to the listener ; most of them impinge against the walls, 
floors, seats, and the ceiling, from which, unless the 
building material is absorbent, they are reflected to 
travel again about the room. It is these reflected or 
secondary waves that accentuate the strength of the 
direct wave and add loudness to the sound. If both 
waves fail to reach the listener simultaneously, or within 
one-fifteenth of a second, of each other, he becomes 
conscious of a duplication of the same sound, usually 
called an echo. It is possible for one sound to produce 
several echoes in a room of ample size when the walls, 
ceiling, seats, and floors are constructed of hard and 
dense material against which the direct waves are readily 
reflected into secondary ones. 

Control of Sound Waves. — It is evident that, if good 
acoustical quality is to be had in an assembly hall, it will 
be necessary to control reflection and prevent the dissipa- 
tion of secondary waves. It is a well-known principle in 
physics, that, although energy is indestructible, it is, 
nevertheless, convertible, that is, when it is lost or ab- 
sorbed, it has simply passed into some other form, such 
as heat or motion. Since ordinary sound is low in energy, 
its conversion into heat would be unappreciable. To 
control the secondary waves, it is necessary merely to 
replace sections of the reflecting surfaces with materials 
which will absorb these waves in such measure, that 
either their return to the audience is prevented or their 
strength is so diminished that they cannot interfere with 
the intensity and audibility of the direct waves. Ma- 



1 For a more comprehensive study of this subject the reader should consult the works of Professor Wallace C. Sabine, Harvard University, and 
those of Professor F. R. Watson of the University of Illinois. "Architectural Acoustics" in the American Architect, 1900, by the former, and 
Bulletins No. 73 and No. 87, University of Illinois, by the latter. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



325 



terials have much the same relation to sound waves as 
they have to light waves ; that is, they absorb, trans- 
mit, or reflect the waves; or they may do all three. 
For instance, when a thin oiled skin like a drum head is 
placed over an opening exposed to the sun's rays, some 
light will pass through, some will be reflected, and some 
will be absorbed by it. The last will be made evident 
by placing the hand upon the skin and noting its warmth. 
On the other hand, a plain sheet of glass will almost 
totally transmit light, while the mirror nearly totally 
reflects light. Likewise, materials of soft texture, such 
as fabrics, transmit, absorb, and dissipate the sound 
waves ; materials such as plaster, brick, steel, wood, glass, 
and cement absorb but little and greatly reflect sound. 

Absorption of Sound Waves. — Such materials as 
" acoustical " hair felt, covered with burlap or rep, 
will suffice to absorb the secondary waves. Often 
rep is used alone. In this case it is placed over a 
cotton twill membrane fastened to furring strips so as 
to allow for an air space between the membrane and the 
structural wall. If the side and rear walls are divided 
into large panels, and the panels covered in this manner 
so that the greater number of secondary waves are pre- 
vented from returning with force to the listener, the 
room will most likely have a good acoustical quality, 
providing other conditions are fulfilled. Some of these 
conditions will be set forth later. 

Coefficients of Absorption. — Professor Wallace C. 
Sabine, Professor of Physics, Harvard University, after 
a large number of experiments, determined the absorbing 
powers of many different materials. He called the 
open window a perfect absorber, and gave it a coeffi- 
cient of one; in comparison with the open window 
the following materials would have the following pro- 
portional coefficients : 1 

One square meter of open window space 



One square meter of audience 
One square meter of hair felt 1" thick . . 
One square meter of heavy rugs and curtains 
One square meter of linoleum loose on floor 
One square meter of hard pine sheathing 
One square meter of plaster on wood lath . 
One square meter of plaster on wire lath 
One square meter of plaster on tile . . . 
One square meter of glass, single thickness . 
One square meter of brick set in Portland cemeni 



0.96 

0-7S 
0.25 



0.034 
0.033 



0.025 
0.025 

From the above table it is noticeable that hair felt 
and textile materials are considerably higher in absorp- 
tion power than the harder and more compact building 
materials. Recently a Gustivino tile has been developed 
which is said to have a high coefficient of absorption, for 
by the roughness of its surface the generation of friction 
dissipates the secondary waves so as to produce acoustical 

1 Bulletin No. 73 University of Illinois, and Kidder's 



quality in the room. A permanent material of this kind 
is highly desirable, as it reduces the fire hazard, is more 
durable, and makes possible better architectural treat- 
ment of the interior of the room. It should be noted also 
that the square meter of audience has a high coefficient 
of absorption. This accounts for the distinct difference 
in the acoustics observed when a hall is empty and when 
filled with people. 

Reflecting Surfaces. — Very few school assembly halls 
are equipped with upholstered chairs. This is a draw- 
back to good acoustics, as the wooden seats and backs 
are severe reflectors of both the direct and secondary 
sound waves. Likewise wood and concrete floors and 
glass are high reflectors. Therefore, whenever it is 
possible, the windows should be draped with heavy cur- 
tains and the aisles and passages should be covered with 
a carpet or with linoleum. Ceiling lights to admit sky- 
light or indirect illumination should be avoided ; instead 
the ceilings should be paneled, with hair felt and rep 
installed within the panels. 

Wall Surfaces. — • The shape of the room also has much 
to do with the formation of echoes. Long and narrow 
rooms are conducive to sound reflection and particularly 
so are rooms hemispherical in form, the latter serving very 
much in the manner of parabolic reflectors in the search- 
light. A room more than 75 feet deep from the stage 
must have some means of focusing the sound waves to 
carry well beyond this point, as it has been found that 
beyond this distance the voice of the average public 
speaker is hardly audible. Of course, there is a danger in 
overpadding the interior of a room, so that on account 
of a lack of resonance sound becomes stifled. For this 
reason certain well-defined sections of the side walls 
should be of a material like plaster or brick which will 
reflect the secondary wave in such a way that it will 
arrive not later than one-fifteenth of a second after the 
arrival of the direct wave. This construction requires 
careful calculation and exact measurements, and the 
locations should be determined by some one expert in 
the study of acoustics. 

Let it not be thought that what has been presented 
here is in any way a complete discussion of the subject. 
The writer has intentionally avoided a technical discourse 
which would involve not only physics but advanced 
mathematics as well. 

' Figure 279 shows the application of the hair felt and the 
rep. These materials should first be chemically treated 
to withstand fire and also be repellent to vermin. The 
rep should be dyed to the color desired for the finish 
tone; it should never be painted, as the paint fills the 
pores of the weave and forms a membrane over the 
material. This nullifies its purpose because the painted 

Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, 16th Edition. 



326 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




^HUVY COTTOJl CLOTH MLI3HANV 
WITH bURL,AP OH REJP OV1H SAME, • 



BHLCK. CONCHiTJL. OIL STL/D-LINf^ 




HXAYY (COTTON CLOTH MLM. SJIANI, 
WITH 3UJILAP OR HOP OVtJl 5AMI, 



1LTH0DS OF- APPLYING ACOUSTICAL HIT- 
AND KJUAI OH IUPP TO WALLS OT 
THE ASSIMBLY HALL- 



5 C AL £, 

Fig. 279. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



327 



surface acts like a drum-head, and the waves cannot 
freely penetrate through or be absorbed by the fabric. 

Organs. — In describing the modern assembly hall, 
one cannot omit mention of the organ any more than of 
the moving picture equipment. It should be borne in 
mind that even though an organ is not possible at the 
time of building the school and the assembly hall, there 
is no reason why the space and provisions for a future 
installation should not be allowed. It costs a community 
many times more to be lacking in vision than it ever 
does to spend freely with a clear vision of future needs. 
Good music, next to eloquence, will do more to stir 
humanity to right living and right action than any other 
force ; it should be encouraged to the fullest extent, 
especially during the formative period of young manhood 
and young womanhood. 

During the study and deliberation of the general 
problem, and particularly that of the assembly hall, an 
expert in organ installations should be consulted regard- 
ing the size of an organ most appropriate for the volume 
of the room, and the other necessities, such as space and 
size of pipes, bellows, fan, motor, etc. A word may not 
be amiss to call attention to the archaic use of false 
pipes for decorative effect. Usually the display is 
cumbrously done and seems to proclaim the vanity of 
some one in authority. Unless very cleverly constructed 
and so arranged as to convey the impression of a sunburst 
accenting an axis of the room, it is far better taste in 
design to substitute a simple decorative plaster grille 
which will provide openings for the sound to pass through. 
It is then possible to have echo pipes in different sections 
of the room. The cost of things constructed in good 
taste is usually less than that of mere showy and decora- 
tive features. 

Quietness. — The assembly hall, like the library, should 
be located where quietness will prevail. It is the ordi- 
nary thing to place the boiler room, the fan room, or the 
cafeteria under the assembly hall. It is really the worst 
place to locate them, both for safety to the audience and 
for the full and satisfactory use of the room. The 
discomfort occasioned by straining to hear a speaker, or 
to listen to a musical or dramatic entertainment, destroys 
the possibility of wholesome pleasure. No excuse can 
be found for architects, and especially engineers, who 
will negligently overlook the necessities of locating the 
mechanical installations where they will function to the 
desired efficiency, and at the same time operate without 
the world knowing it. Boards of Education and the 
public are fast realizing that it sometimes costs a little 
more to have ideal conditions, but if they are made 
acquainted with the facts in time, they generally accede 
to the requirements. On the other hand, preliminary 
study and premeditation very often will bring the cost 



of good conditions below that of permanently bad 
conditions. Boiler rooms should be located in isolated 
buildings or in wings where they may be built entirely 
of fireproof materials such as masonry or concrete. 
Cafeterias likewise may better be located in separate 
buildings or in such part of the main building that no 
odors from the kitchens can permeate the school. 

Moving Picture Booth. — To have good pictures 
requires not only a good machine, but a booth so con- 
structed that the machine is not handicapped. (See 
Figure 280.) First of all, the booth should be solidly 
built, and the floor should have such rigidity as to obviate 
machine vibration, which makes the pictures dance and 
is harmful to the eyes of the observer. The vertical 
and horizontal axes of the picture rays should strike 
the center of the screen. This adjustment necessitates 
placing the booth, and especially the opening for the 
moving picture rays, directly on a line at right angles 
with the center of the screen. If the booth is at a high 
elevation, the screen should be tilted so the rays will 
strike it at right angles or nearly so. The screen should 
be rigidly fastened to prevent movement. When a 
gridiron is included in the stage equipment, it is possible 
to have the screen constructed of metal lath and plaster 
applied to a frame of channel and angle iron construc- 
tion. The space for the picture should be painted an 
ivory white with a black border outside the limits of 
the rays, serving as a contrast to give distinctness to the 
picture. 

Equipment and Current. — ■ The equipment should con- 
sist of a good moving picture machine and a stereopticon 
lantern. If possible, the booth should also contain a 
spotlight for use during dramas and " skits " staged by 
the students. Light from alternating current is not as 
steady or as brilliant as that supplied by direct current. 
Where the latter is not available from the street service 
the motor generator set in the physics laboratory should 
supply the current. As a matter of good engineering, 
the current should be supplied from that source anyway. 

Construction. —All fire ordinances require that moving 
picture booths shall be constructed of fireproof materials 
such as concrete, brick, or, as is generally used, wood 
sheathing covered with No. 26 gauge galvanized iron, 
locked-seamed for walls, floors, and ceilings. All doors, 
door frames, and shutters should be of metal, or be metal 
covered, and the shutters for the rays should be suspended 
by cotton strings attached to counterweights so that a 
flash of fire will burn the ties of string, allowing the shut- 
ters to close tight. All doors to the booths should close 
automatically and be kept closed during a performance. 
A metal film box whic"h can be tightly closed should be 
provided in which to store the films within the booth. 
The combustion of a film is so rapid and intense that 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




cw ZhWs in cljuhs) T 

1 —i ■™-l 




INTLIUQlt VILW LOOKING fOUWARP 



rt IIJI M-i- Of MJLTAL-, 



LJ 1 |Li-o r£ HI^S-U COMW 

- ■— ' in n 



i 



•UTUlOi VI1.W- 




PLAN SHOWING RiOOM. WITH Oil MACHINE, • 



PLAN SHOWING HQQM WITH TWO MACHINES - 

- TYPICAL MOVING P1CTUH1 „ TLQOM. 

5 C A L £ 
Fig. 280. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 




;. — Grover Cleveland High School, St. I 



the operator seldom has time to escape should one 
catch fire while he is operating the machine. This film 
box may contain the rewinding machine so often needed 
in a much used picture booth. Without fail, the booth 
should be provided with a fireproof vent flue having a 
minimum cross sectional area of 50 square inches. It 
is best to locate this flue right over the machine and 
have it lead directly to the outdoor air. A fireproof 
inlet supplying 30 cubic feet of air per minute should 
also be provided for ventilation, so that the operator will 
not expose the audience to the danger of fire and panic 
by opening the door for ventilation when the booth 
becomes heated by the machine light. A signal button 
and buzzer in the booth and on the stage should be 
provided so that a lecturer may direct the changing of 
stereopticon slides. An inter-communication telephone 
system between the stage and the booth is desirable, 
and the expense is inappreciable compared to the con- 
venience. 

The construction of the front wall of the moving 
picture booth as shown in Figure 280 should be observed, 
as it is the most practical method found by the writer. 
The asbestos board is not secured in place until the 
picture machine is properly located with relation to the 
curtain and then the openings in the asbestos board are 
neatly formed. This asbestos board is about ■§" thick 
and should be fastened so it can be easily removed in 



order that new machines may be correctly placed with 
relation to the curtain. 

Lighting and Illumination. — If at all possible, the 
assembly hall should be well provided with good, natural 
lighting for the hygienic effect of the sun's rays in purify- 
ing the room. In fact, as we have previously said, all 
rooms in a school building should, if possible, have the 
benefit of the cheerfulness and natural warmth of 
sunshine. 

The windows should have opaque shades operated 
within slides so that the room may be darkened for the 
use of moving pictures and stereopticon views. The 
method is quite fully described in the chapter on Physics. 
Heavy drapes or curtains will be found advantageous for 
the acoustical quality of the room, as well as for decora- 
tive purposes. Under " Electric Wiring and Illumina- 
tion " the lighting of the auditorium will be described 
fully. However, the writer favors the semi-direct 
method, as it is more cheerful than the indirect and 
costs considerably less. On the other hand, direct light- 
ing should be avoided, as the glare is decidedly tiring, 
and painful after a very short time. Either all fixtures 
should have double service, or certain fixtures should be 
wired to separate street service lines in order to have 
light, should the main service to the building fail for 
any reason. This is a precautionary measure that 
ought to be adopted in halls of large seating capacity. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Auditorium, Clawson School, Oakland, California. 



Mr. John J. Donovan, i 



One of the short-sighted regulations of many ordinances 
is the absurd size required for exit light boxes. They 
are unnecessarily large and out of keeping with the 
surrounding details. There is no reason why good 
judgment and consideration for proportion should not 
prevail in safety measures as in other matters. Exit 
lights should be placed over every exit and kept lighted 
during the occupancy of the room whenever the room 
is darkened. 

Aisles. — The building laws of nearly all cities agree 
on the following as to the width of the aisles : 

All aisles having seats on each side shall not be less 
than three feet wide where they begin near the stage 
and shall be increased in width towards the exits in the 
ratio of if" to 5 running feet. Aisles having seats on 
one side only shall not be less than two feet wide at 
the beginning and increase in width if" in 10 running 
feet. 

Ordinances further require that all seats except those 
contained in boxes shall not be less than 32" back to 



back, measured in a horizontal direction. No seat in 
the auditorium or theater shall have more than six 
seats intervening between it and an aisle. 

The above has been taken literally from Building 
Ordinances Controlling the Construction of Auditoriums 
and Theaters, which the construction of school audi- 
toriums should follow. 

Exits. — All assembly halls should have more than 
one means of exit. Exits should be arranged on the 
front and sides if possible as well as at the rear or 
entrance. This arrangement will give a sense of secur- 
ity which is important in the elimination of panics. 
Steps of any kind should be avoided either at exits or 
in any passage or aisle leading to the exits. Openings 
5' o" wide with double doors opening outward and 
operated with panic bolts should be provided for every 
250 seats up to 1000, and then one for every 300 seats 
additional. 

Painting and Decoration. — In order that harmony 
should prevail, the color scheme of the assembly hall 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



333 




— Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



Mr. Wm. A. Poland, Architect. 



should receive careful study. Unlike a theater, it is 
not adapted to a wide range of decorative ornament 
and free use of color. On the other hand, somber tones 
are likely to reflect melancholy, which is entirely out of 
keeping with the buoyant spirit of the students. The 
room has so many uses that no particular one should 
control the color scheme. Consequently, any light, 
cheerful coloring will usually be found appropriate. 
The chairs, curtains, hangings, and especially the 
scenery for the stage, should be selected so as to produce 
a general harmonious effect. The usual method is for 
the architect to select colors for the walls, ceilings, etc. ; 
the purchasing agent selects the chairs and hangings ; 
the principal selects the scenery ; and the final result is 
a free-for-all, everlasting clash in the general scheme. 
Like everything else in the study of the plan, there 
should be collaboration and good team-work throughout ; 
then not only harmony but happiness will prevail. 

The assembly hall is the ideal room for a terse inscrip- 
tion which will attract the students' attention and lead 
to thoughts of the higher purposes of life. A well-chosen 
epigram often will do more to displace frivolity with 
earnestness and seriousness than a full course of lectures 
on self-efficiency. Likewise, the intellectual enrichment 



diffused by a fine mural painting is immeasurable. And 
there is no spot in the entire community where it can 
be observed by more people than upon the proscenium 
walls of the school auditorium.' Here, again, is the 
opportunity for vision. Even though the available 
funds will not permit of a mural painting at the time of 
constructing the building, there is no excuse for not 
arranging space for such a future acquisition. The 
country is alive with fine young artists fully capable of 
producing wonderful visions of inspiration, who are 
glad to have the opportunity to demonstrate their 
ability and give life to their conceptions. A slight 
investigation will bring to light what may be accom- 
plished at a very small expense. In order to avoid 
hasty action in the selection of the man and in choosing 
the subject, it is probably far better to have this piece 
of work done some time after the building is completed. 
Also, the artist should never be rushed in his work. 
For if done at all, it should be done well, as it is to be 
done for all time. Nothing is so disgusting as a preten- 
tious or badly executed mural painting. A painting is 
indicative of the intelligence and skill of the painter, but 
it is also a measure of the taste and intelligence of the 
client, and in a school building, of the community. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 








Fig. 286. — Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



ward Stotz, Architect. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 



335 




Fig. 287. — Assembly Hall, Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. 



33 6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



"""-T 





Fig. 288. — Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, Illinois. 



F. Hwsander, Architect. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 




ton. Architects. 



Fig. 289. — Assembly Hall Gymnasium, Edward S. Bragg School, Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. 



338 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




aSBBBm 

Messrs. Perkins, Fellows & Hamilton, A 
Fig. 290. — Assembly Hall, Lincolnwood School, District #75, Evanston, Illinois. 



34Q 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 292. — South Side High School, Newark, New Jersey. 



Missrs. (ivilbi-rl A- HetiUe. 



THE ASSEMBLY HALL 




CHAPTER XVII 
THE MUSIC DEPARTMENT 

By Glen H. Woods, A.A.G.O., Director of Music School Department, Oakland, California 

I. Elementary Schools. II. Intermediate or Junior High School. III. Senior or Regular High School. IV. Assembly Hall. 
. Vocational Music, (i) Equipment. (2) Office and Library. (3) Acoustics and Noise Deadening. 



Elementary Schools. — On account of the rapidly 
increasing interest in the study and teaching of instru- 
mental and choral music in the public schools, this divi- 
sion of the school organization requires careful consider- 
ation in the plan of the new school building. Two 
phases should be considered in the elementary school : 
first, small rehearsal rooms about io'Xi2' in which 
private individual instrumental instruction may be 
given ; and second, the stage of the assembly hall, 
which should be sufficiently large to accommodate an 
ensemble rehearsal of all the players in the school. 
When assembly halls in elementary schools are equipped 
with movable chairs, it is possible to use them for other 
activities besides convocations and assemblies. Conse- 
quently, whenever the stage is too small, it is possible to 
use the floor for the rehearsals of the band and orchestra, 
and each player may have sufficient space so as to be 
seated comfortably and have enough elbow room to 
play without interference from his neighbor. Fixed 
audience seats placed close to the stage eliminate the 
use of the floor for rehearsals, and the stage is the only 
resource. Therefore, it is advisable to keep in mind the 
many uses to which the stage and floor may be assigned, 
and one of the most valuable uses is for orchestral con- 
certs and rehearsals. In order to seat an orchestra of 
30 pieces, the stage should be at least 32 feet wide by 
17 feet deep. Figure 294 shows the seating arrangement 
of the players and the areas required for each group. 

The Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California, 
illustrated on pages 91, 332, is a good example of a 
model elementary school with excellent appointments 
for instrumental and orchestral instruction. The stage 
is elevated to a height of 4' o" above the floor and is 
sufficiently large to accommodate an orchestra of 30 
pieces. The small dressing rooms adjoining the stage 
are used for giving individual instrumental lessons, and 
when well lighted, ventilated, and far removed from the 
study classrooms, as in this case, they serve well for this 



purpose. The acoustical quality of this assembly room 
is almost perfect, as the walls of the room have a paneled 
wood wainscot about nine feet high and above this the 
masonry walls are covered with acoustical hair-felt and 
burlap. Also the ceiling is finished with wood beams 
and panels. It is an ideal room for an ensemble practice, 
there being no perceptible echoes even when only the 
players are present. No doubt this is due to the special 
treatment of the interior design. 

In schools without assembly halls it is necessary to 
resort to the use of corridors or even to poorly lighted 
basement rooms. The serious danger of causing confusion 
in blocking the corridor in times of fire and panics makes 
it mandatory that in such cases temporary quarters like 
portable buildings should be furnished, pending the 
permanent assembly hall. Makeshift quarters are 
usually devoid of the proper natural and artificial light- 
ing facilities, and the study of music requires both in 
order to save the pupils from eye strain. 

The Intermediate or Junior High School. — As the 
enrollment in the junior high school is much larger than 
that of the average elementary school, the musical activi- 
ties are more intense, and consequently, the accommo- 
dations should be well thought out to provide for private 
individual lessons, orchestra practice, and choral classes. 
The small rooms, previously mentioned under Elementary 
Schools, and the stage of the assembly hall, will provide 
for the first two, and the average classroom can be 
used to good advantage for choral instruction where the 
classes are small. 

However, in a school of this size and character, there 
should be a special music room which would have a 
seating capacity of about 150. This would then ac- 
commodate large choral classes for community singing. 
This room would relieve the assembly hall and serve for 
many other school purposes. The seating arrangement 
should be that of the amphitheater or " clinic " type so 
that the line of sight from each seat will focus upon the 



THE MUSIC DEPARTMENT 




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346 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



instructor. With the seats elevated on steps or on a 
sloping floor, each pupil can be seen by the teacher, and 
the tone of each voice is not impeded or obstructed by 
the student in front. There are many objections to a 
level floor. A small stage or rostrum two feet high and 
about seven feet deep is very desirable. It should be 
about sixteen feet long so as to accommodate a piano 
and a victrola and to allow sufficient room for the teacher 
to move about freely. Music cases that may be securely 
locked could very well be built into the wall back of the 
rostrum, forming a paneled wainscot. These cases 
should be deep enough (about 15 inches) for books, 
records, and octavo music. For instrumental instruc- 
tion, the plan of the elementary school should be increased 
to include more small rooms for individual instruction. 
For orchestral practice, the stage should be large enough 
to seat at least fifty players, that is, there should be a 
floor area of about 750 square feet, which allows 15 
square feet per player. A stage 35 feet wide and 25 feet 
deep is just about adequate to meet these requirements. 
(See Figure 295.) 

The intermediate school should have a special teacher 
in charge of all music work, having a small room set 
apart for a combination office and music library. This 
should be provided with wall cases for the storage of all 
kinds of music, records, and song books. 

Senior or Regular High Schools. (See Figures 295, 
296, and 297.) In the last five years the development of 
instrumental music in the high schools has met with 
such favorable approval and has been so generally ac- 
cepted in all school systems that it is necessary to con- 
sider this phase of music instruction in connection with 
the construction of all new high schools. The average 
large high school will offer as electives in its curriculum, 
choral, harmony, and history ; band, and orchestra ; 
and individual instruction on all instruments, including 
the piano. Where the choral class is small, the average 
classroom accommodating thirty to forty pupils can be 
used. Inasmuch as the enrollment in the harmony and 
history classes is usually not large, these same class- 
rooms can be used for such classes, provided there is 
sufficient space between the front row of seats and the 
wall to accommodate a piano and a victrola, besides the 
teacher's desk. (See Figure 295.) In rooms where har- 
mony instruction is given regularly, the blackboards 
should be ruled with double staves of five fines, each 
\" wide, with 1" spaces between the lines and 3" spans 
between the staves ; the three sides of such rooms should 
be equipped with blackboards. 

Where band and orchestra instruction is offered as a 
regular subject, it is advisable to have one room espe- 
cially equipped for these organizations. If the same 
room is used for more than one phase of musical instruc- 



tion, it is necessary to arrange the racks, chairs, and 
music for either or both of these organizations. For 
-that reason the program should be arranged so as to 
concentrate the instrumental rehearsals in the afternoon. 
This will obviate the necessity of rearranging the room 
each time for these and other classes. While such a 
plan might indicate a rather expensive outlay, choice 
must be made between greater efficiency in handling 
such organizations with the minimum expenditure of 
time in getting ready for active work, or accepting the 
alternative of spending a large part of the lesson period 
in arranging the room for the rehearsal. The latter is 
a perpetual waste of the students' and instructor's time 
and is decidedly an economic loss. 

This room should be well lighted, and the chairs should 
be arranged so that the backs of the students are turned 
towards the windows in order to have the light fall 
directly upon the music sheets. Figure 297 shows the 
desired arrangement. The orchestra and band room 
should be large enough to seat fifty players, and should 
have wall cases for the storage of instruments at either 
end and under the window stools. These cases should 
be specially designed to hold such instruments as the 
string-bass, bass-drum, cello, horns, trombones, violins, 
noncollapsible racks, etc. The last require considerable 
space for storage. Facilities should be at hand for 
quickly clearing the room, as it should be of a size very 
desirable for many of the school affairs. 

The Assembly Hall. — Most of the assembly halls in 
even the modern high schools have little or no con- 
venience for performances which require the accompani- 
ment of an orchestra. Chorals given from the stage 
necessitate placing the orchestra on the floor in a way 
similar to that of the theater plan. Therefore, there 
must be sufficient space between the first row of seats 
and the stage apron so as to accommodate at least thirty 
players comfortably seated and in full view of the leader. 
Sixteen feet is none too large an allowance for this depth. 
(See Figure 294.) The space is always available for seats 
on skids or movable chairs which can be easily removed 
and stored away. The main point to keep in mind is 
that when once the fixed seats are fastened to the floor, 
this prohibits the use of the floor by the orchestra, and 
it is more difficult to have the fixed chairs removed than 
movable ones. Another important matter is to see that 
sufficient electrical base and floor receptacles are provided 
in the stage apron and in the floor from which extension 
cords may lead to the lighting fixtures on the music 
racks. Each music rack should be equipped with a 
semi-closed reflector similar to those used by theater 
orchestras. 

Vocational Music. — Quite a few school departments 
in the country, believing thoroughly in music instruction, 



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348 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



have established vocational courses which often require 
a special building, or at least a specially equipped music 
department. The preceding suggestions and the draw- 
ings shown will be found adaptable for vocational in- 
struction with certain modifications, enlargements, and 
additional special rooms in order to have the school 
fit the community. 

Equipment. — Music cases should be built to accom- 
modate octavo music, /'Xn"; piano music, n" X 
14"; orchestra music, 8"Xi2"; band music, 5"x8" 




fixon LmtS [or. 'opACE. 

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and /'Xn"; books, 5"x8", /'Xn", and 8"Xi2", 
and records, 12" in diameter. 

In constructing cases sufficient inside clearance should 
be allowed to facilitate ease in handling the music and 
to avoid tearing it when removing it or returning it to 
its place in the case. Open shelves 15" deep, one foot 
apart, are preferable to partitioned sections that are too 
small. (See Figure 298.) 

The best music rack for use at rehearsal on the stage 
or in the orchestra pit is a noncollapsible rack with a 
heavy iron-casting base with a * pipe upright. The 
nickel collapsible and folding rack used by musicians as 



a portable rack is convenient but not strong enough to 
withstand the wear and tear of a rehearsal room, and is 
so light it is very easily turned over. The manual train- 
ing department in any high school can easily make these 
noncollapsible racks at a moderate cost of about $1.00 
apiece. 

When pupils bring their own instruments to school, 

some place of safety must be provided for storing them 

during the periods when the pupil is reciting in his other 

classes. Such instruments as the string bass, tuba, cello, 

trombone, and saxophone are more or less 

clumsy and need special provision for their 

accommodation in order to protect them from 

injury by being knocked down or bumped into. 

Figure 299 is a suggestion for such instrument 

cases. 

The chairs used for band and orchestra in 
the elementary schools should be plain, solid 
oak chairs with straight backs and flat bottom 
seats about 16" from the floor. Such chairs 
will stand the wear and tear received in a 
rehearsal room and not be easily broken. The 
folding chairs, while more convenient for stor- 
ing, are easily broken and are too unsteady and 
flimsy for the comfort of violin players. The 
same style of chairs can be used for high 
schools, except that the seat should be 18" from the 
floor. 

The pipe organ has been referred to in the chapter on 
Assembly Halls, but a word here will not be amiss. The 
school body and the public will find that the installation 
of a pipe organ is a great acquisition to any high school. 
A good two manual organ, fully equipped, will cost 
between six thousand and eight thousand dollars. The 
day is near at hand when the organ will be considered 
as essential to the equipment of the music depart- 
ment and the assembly hall as the lathe is to the 
machine shop. 




5JCJIOH n 



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miction 



THE MUSIC DEPARTMENT 




FiG.5300. — Music Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



Office and Library. — ■ A music office and library is an 
economical combination ot two essential features in 
any music department of a large high school. A clerk 
or office assistant can also serve as the music librarian, 
and all books and music used in the school can be con- 
trolled and distributed from a central office. 

Acoustics and Noise Deadening. — Rooms used for 
chorals, orchestra, band, and individual instrumental 
instruction should be specially treated by padding the 
surfaces of the walls and the ceilings with acoustical 
hair felt covered with rep or burlap. It will also be 
found helpful if the floors are covered with linoleum. The 
subject of acoustics is very fully covered in the chapter 
on Assembly Halls. It should be remembered that it 
is utterly impossible to teach or study effectively in 
music rooms unless the echoes and reverberations are 
reduced to the minimum. Likewise, it is important 



that the transmission of sound from one room to another 
should be carefully guarded against in the construction 
of the walls, ceilings, and floors of the building. Figure 
297, in the chapter on Assembly Halls, shows how this 
may be done as effectively as building conditions will 
permit. Double doors are quite necessary between 
rooms, although there is a single soundproof door in 
use at the School of Music, Northwestern University, 
Evanston, Illinois, and in the music department at 
Yale University, which seems to answer the purpose 
quite well. These are matters which distinguish a 
good plant from a poor one, and no matter how adequate 
the scheme and plant may be, if the essential details for 
controlling the sounds and echoes within the rooms are 
not cared for, the educational results are bound to fall 
below the standards possible where favorable conditions 
prevail. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 

By Arthur L. Jordan, Head of Department of Science, Polytechnic High School, San Francisco, California 

I. Science Department, (i) Preliminary Note. (2) Intermediate School, Regular High School and Junior College. (3) Location 
of the Science Group Rooms. (4) Furniture. (5) Workshop. (6) Library. (7) Special Plumbing. (8) Dark Room Picture Pro- 
jection. (9) School Camera. (10) Laboratory Breakage Fund. 

II. Physics. (1) Lecture Room. (2) Storeroom for Lecture Table Apparatus. (3) The Laboratory. (4) Equipment. 

(5) Storerooms. (6) Dark Rooms. 

III. Applied Physics. (1) Special Laboratories. (2) Laboratory for Mechanics, Strength of Materials and Hydraulics. (3) Steam 
and Gas Engine Laboratory. (4) Laboratory for Direct and Alternating Current Electricity. (5) The Machines. (6) Measuring 
Instruments. (7) Switchboards. (8) Lamp-Bank. (9) Apparatus. (10) Storerooms, (n) Lecture Rooms. 

IV. Chemistry. (1) The Lecture Room. (2) Storerooms for Lecture Table Apparatus. (3) The Chemistry Laboratory. 
(4) Switchboards. (5) Laboratory Tables. (6) Balance Room. 

V. Applied Chemistry. (1) Planning of Courses. (2) Technical Chemistry (for young men). (3) Household and Domestic 
Chemistry, the Chemistry of Foods (girls). (4) Lighting of Laboratories. (5) Technical Education for Adults, for Crippled Soldiers. 

(6) Lessons from the War. 



I. The Science Department. Preliminary Note. — No 
apology seems necessary in demanding for the science 
department a most important place in the plans for 
building an equipment of a high school. Science at- 
tained great prominence in world affairs before the war, 
and every one knows of the vital part which it played 
during the war. 

The science department has two special relations 
to the community: first, the use of the projection ap- 
paratus (for fixed or moving pictures), the electric cur- 
rent for and the adjustment of which are most com- 
monly a science department problem; second, the 
need of the community for certain special courses, as 
Assaying, Agriculture, Applied Courses in Electricity, 
Hydraulics, Mechanics, Strength of Materials, includ- 
ing Cement and Concrete (for boys), Biology, Physi- 
ology, Household Chemistry, First Aid and Nursing 
(for girls). These, in general, are not essentially for 
college preparation, but some communities believe 
very strongly in the preparatory courses, and the work 
should then be modified accordingly. The rooms 
needed for the department will be referred to as the 
" Science Group." 

Certain assumptions are necessary: (1) That gen- 
eral science (or some other equivalent " First Year 
Science ") is given in the first year, and we should con- 
sider whether it is a " required " or an " elective " 
subject. If the former, large classroom space and teach- 
ing force are necessary. (2) Chemistry and physics 
are usually given in the third or fourth years except 



where special courses like those mentioned above are 
given, in which case the following plan works well: 
At the end of the first year the students are divided 
into two groups, " College Preparatory " and " Non- 
College "or "Industrial." The former take a course 
in elementary physics of four periods (45 minutes each) 
per week during the second (sophomore) year, chemis- 
try or biological work during the third year, and the 
completion of the physics (6 periods per week) in the 
fourth year. The latter are given a course in the second 
year (6 periods per week instead of 4) called " Practical 
Physics." This leaves the entire third and fourth years 
for the special courses referred to. (3) The above-men- 
tioned three subjects with one other (say biology) 
form the more or less standard group of courses, the 
rooms for which constitute the " Science Group " men- 
tioned above. One other room of the utmost use to the 
public as well as to the school is one intermediate in size 
between an ordinary science lecture room and the main 
auditorium, and holding from 150 to 250 people with a 
raised bank of tablet chairs. This is much better for 
meetings than the " study room " sometimes pressed 
into service. This room can be used for Science, and 
called the " large lecture room," its projection lanterns 
and lantern screen being useful to teachers of English, 
history, etc., as well as for public lectures, community 
singing, and similar meetings. (4) While the relative 
numbers of students of the two sexes may vary at differ- 
ent times and in different places, it may be assumed that 
the two are about equal in the " first year science," 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



35i 



that there will be more girls than boys in the biological 
sciences and the reverse in the physical sciences. 

Intermediate School, Senior or Regular High School 
and Junior College. — If the community decides to 
change the prevalent system (elementary school 8 years, 
high school 4 years), it can do so according to one 
of two or three plans. For example : elementary 
school the first six years, intermediate 3 years (7th- 





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rate the rooms and have the discomfort of stair-climb- 
ing- 

In a small high school one lecture room can be used 
for two sciences, as physics and chemistry, and the 
ideal location would be midway between the two lab- 
oratories. The only difference in equipment if the 
room is used for chemistry would be to have a some- 
what deeper sink in the lecture table and a fume-closet 



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Fig. 301. 

9th), high school 3 years (ioth-i2th), junior college 2 
years (i3th-i4th). Following this plan, the work 
outlined below under heading " Applied Physics " and 
" Applied Chemistry " would come in the junior col- 
lege, and the additional rooms, apparatus, and ma- 
chinery required must be of the same character as those 
used in university work. Instructions cannot be given, 
as in English or mathematics, by simply employing a 
qualified instructor ; nor can it be given with the 
science apparatus of the high school; and the cost of 
the additional equipment must be understood and pro- 
vided for. (See paragraph on " Cost Estimates " later.) 

Location of the Science Group Rooms. — ■ If the ground- 
floor story is high and well-lighted, this is the best 
location on account of its freedom from vibration. 
Vibration interferes seriously with accurate balance work 
in chemistry, with the use of the microscope in biology 
and all uses of delicate galvanometers in electricity. 

If the floor is of cement, it should be smooth-coated 
and then be covered with a good grade of battleship 
linoleum. This will prevent the serious tiring of feet 
which is sure to occur ; also the cold during winter, if 
uncovered cement is used. 

In answer to the argument that the fumes from chemi- 
cal processes will be objectionable if the laboratory is 
on the ground floor, it can be stated that experience 
shows that a good ventilating system with motor-driven 
exhaust or suction fan will discharge them through an 
outlet above the roof. 

The first floor is, of course, next best, and it is far better 
to have the group all on one floor rather than to sepa- 



llfi-fi.AR.r FOL SCIZNCL ftODK.6. 

Fig. 302. 

built near the front of the room. Forced ventilation 
will be treated later. In large schools separate rooms 
should be provided, as they are in continual demand for 
meeting places of various school activities. 

Science Department Furniture. — ■ Furniture for the 
department should be planned at one time, and it should 
be alike as far as possible. This facilitates interchang- 
ing, allows for expansions, etc., and produces flexibility. 
It may be classified into : (1) Standard (as stools and 
chairs, filing cabinets, some laboratory and lecture 
tables). (See Figure 301.) (2) Built-in, as sliding black- 
boards ; lecture tables, chemistry laboratory tables and 
all other fixtures requiring plumbing or electricity; 
apparatus wall cabinets for physics, for chemistry, for 
biology ; library for science books (see figure 302 for type 
of bookcase), etc. (3) Special, as bulletin boards, 
keyboards, display cabinets, etc. (4) Mill work, as 
cabinets for the ordinary 9X11 inch science binder — 
60 shelves, holding 120 binders, which should be built 
in the walls, double and single direction boards, lantern- 
slide cabinets, tool cases for workshop, two kinds of wall 
cabinets, narrow and wide (with glass doors and mov- 
able shelves) which should be located in convenient 
places, and fastened to the walls after rooms are finished. 
Designs for these are given later. 

Science Department Workshop. — ■ One small room 
should be fitted up as a workroom or shop (one end of a 
large store can be used). (See Figure 303.) A heavy 
bench with a vise and anvil is the first requisite; the 
second, a set of good carpenters' and metal workers' tools. 
Cases with good locks should be provided for them. 



352 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



If the school has no machine shop or woodworking 
department, the investment of a few hundred dollars 
in a machinist's lathe, a wood lathe, a sensitive drill, 
and a " polishing head " (fitted with circular saws 
and saw-table), with the necessary shafting and driv- 
ing motor, would certainly pay. This equipment pro- 
vides for the repair of numerous pieces of apparatus 
and furniture, also for the building of new apparatus. 
The latter is not only a great economy, but also allows 
the progressive teacher a chance to keep his courses up- 
to-date with new experiments and to prepare material 
for popular science lectures and demonstrations. 

Science Department Library. — Equal in importance 
to a set of mechanical tools is a collection of good ref- 
erence books. In some cases it may be well to have all 
the science books in one place, provided with library 
tables (of glazed partitions), under the constant super- 
vision of a teacher, but experience has shown that 
reference books are most useful when near at hand ; 
hence it is usually better to have the physics books in the 
physics laboratory, those on biology in the biology 
laboratory, and so on. When the students' tables are 



apt to be covered with acids, as in chemistry, a wall- 
table for reference books should be provided. The 
preservation of these books is in the hands of the teacher. 

An important question is that of providing funds for 
the renewal of books. A still more important one is 
the need for new books, which, in some cases {e.g. wireless 
telegraphy) as soon as they are published, render their 
predecessors obsolete. Closely related to this is the 
subject of subscriptions to the scientific papers and 
magazines. Books are somewhat behind the times, and a 
few good papers are absolutely necessary to keep the 
school up to date. In no line of human activity is there 
more rapid development than in the lines of applied 
science. The money for the above may be obtained 
from the general library fund of the school. Another 
possibility, especially for the magazines, is a voluntary 
subscription from the students taking the subject to 
which that magazine applies. The best plan, how- 
ever, in most cases is to draw from the laboratory or 
breakage fund mentioned later. 

Special Plumbing. Gas. — It frequently happens in 
science laboratory work that most of the students need 




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Fig. 303. 



WOOD WOfcXING BENCH 




PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



353 



bunsen burners at the same time. A large number of 
gas nozzles therefore should be provided and large- 
sized supply pipes (at least i\ inch mains, and one inch 
feeders) should be run. The pressure should not go 
below 6 inches of water when the maximum number of 
burners are in operation. The nozzles should be of the 
same diameter ( T V') as the tube of the standard bunsen 
burner, so they will take the same size rubber tubing; 
and a few fixtures for bat-wing gas flames should be 
provided. They are useful in bending glass tubing and 
for " objects " in the study of " Light." In some special 
cases (chemistry lecture table, blow-torch in shop, 
or gas engine supply) a larger nozzle (f" to i") is needed. 

Water. — In chemistry, one sink should be provided 
for every two students ; for physics, general science 
and biology, at least three sinks in each room are de- 
sirable. On all lecture tables there should be two fau- 
cets, one fitted with a f " hose bibb. This is so that an 
aspirator can be used. In general, they should be high 
enough (not less than 16" above bottom of sink) to 
allow for tall jars being placed below them, and all supply 
pipes should have controlling valves below each sink. 
All supply pipes to the different floors should be equipped 
with controlling valves. 

Hot Water. — A separate heater (for the few experi- 
ments requiring hot water) will usually cost less than the 
installation of plumbing for hot water at each sink; 
but this also depends upon the kind of heating plant 
for the building and the possibility of a constant hot 
water supply. 

Photography. — Two or more sinks will be needed in 
each photographic dark room. 

Compressed Air or Vacuum Piping. — For ordinary 
high school science work, experiments requiring com- 
pressed air or vacuum are very rare, and it would seem a 
waste of money to provide the plumbing for them. If 
advanced laboratory work is to be given, an air com- 
pressor is very desirable. The plumbing used in con- 
junction with it, as well as that for hydraulics, steam, 
and gas engine work is mentioned in Part IV, Applied 
Physics. 

Darkroom Picture Projection (including moving pic- 
tures). — This subject involves the ordinary lecture 
rooms for all of the divisions of science, for history, 
English, modern languages, etc. ; the room spoken of 
as the " Large Lecture Room " (seating 150 or more), 
Sect. 1, and the auditorium or assembly hall. 

Opaque Curtains. — -AH rooms where direct sunlight 
can enter should have a set of translucent curtains for 
use during sunshine hours. In addition to these the 
rooms mentioned above should have a set of carefully 
fitted opaque curtains. It is true that for the pro- 
jection of the commonly used transparent slides the 



room need not be very dark — and for younger students 
it should never be entirely so — but for the projection 
of opaque objects (reflectoscope) and for certain ex- 
periments in chemistry (as phosphorescence), and in 
physics (violet light, electric brush discharge), there 
must be some arrangement that permits it to be dark- 
ened completely. 

Curtain Guides. — These should be a part of the con- 
tract for the building, and the architect should see that 
there is ample clearance {i.e. the slot in which the cur- 



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5E3E 



VAIL OF BLD'G 



IN5ERT Or BONE OR. HARD RUBBER. FOR, 5TR.1NG " 

INSIDE ELEVATION SECTION 

MLTAl CURTAIN QUJDLd 

Fig. 304. 

tain runs should not be narrow), that there is plenty of 
overlap (2§" to 3"), and that the roller is boxed in at 
the top and the guides closed at the bottom. These 
guides can be made of metal and an insert of bone or 
hard rubber provided so that the cord which raises or 
lowers the curtain will not be frayed by use. (See 
Figure 304.) 

Ventilation. — If the room is darkened, ventilation 
by doors and windows is impossible, and if the build- 
ing has no ventilating system forced ventilation must 
be resorted to for this room. Any one who has attended 
" picture shows " in poorly ventilated theaters will re- 
call the ill effect of a large crowd added to the heat from 
the lantern. This is a good example of the general 
necessity for mechanical ventilation, as mentioned above. 
Its installation should be in the hands of a competent 
ventilating engineer, for the selection of the proper 
fan, the designing of ducts which will allow air to enter 
but no light, the preventing of the noise of the fan from 
interfering with the speaker, etc., are jobs for an expert. 

Lanterns. — Lanterns using gas-filled incandescent 
lamps. These are suitable for small and medium-sized 
rooms and are primarily for slides, although some forms 



354 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



can be used as " reflectoscopes." They may be at- 
tached to an ordinary electric lamp socket, having either 
direct or alternating current, and do not require an ex- 
pert operator. That is, the lamp requires no attention 
until it is burned out, and then it is easily replaced by 
a new one (costing about $5 for a small lantern). One 
type of a double lantern having a pleasing " dissolving " 
effect can be bought (Bausch & Lomb Co.) for about $65. 

Lantern Using Arc Lamp. — A lantern using an arc 
lamp for its illuminant is best for a large room (audi- 
torium) and direct current is far superior to alternating. 
This requires from 7 to 14 amperes and special wiring 
is advisable. The cost for renewing the carbons is very 
little. It can be used for projecting the words or music 
of songs (if slides are properly made) in a fairly light 
room. 

Reflectoscopes. — ■ A small reflectoscope, which will 
show pictures slightly larger than post cards, cost (in 
1915) with screen, $46.00; a larger one (also using a 
gas-filled lamp, but without screen) cost about $125.00. 
A very efficient reflectoscope, using an arc lamp and di- 
rect current of from 25 to 30 amperes, which will show 
8"X8" pictures, cost (without screen) $340.00. Special 
wiring is necessary for this type. 

The lamp renewals of the first two, and the replacing 
of broken condensing lenses of the last, are very ex- 
pensive, so the matter should be considered carefully 
before purchasing this form of projector. 

Moving Picture Projectors. — ■ The unquestioned value 
of the moving picture film as an aid to education makes 
it highly desirable to equip the assembly hall of the 
school with one good machine {e.g. Simplex, Powers, 
or Edison.) 1 If funds are not available a place at least 
should be provided for it, and later, an entertainment 
or other appeal to the community may supply the 
funds. 

The projection booth should be fireproof and should 
otherwise conform to the insurance regulations. It is 
usually placed in the back of the gallery, as space can 
better be spared there than on the main floor. This 
booth is used for ordinary projection as well as for 
motion pictures. 

Screens. — Where the lecture room is wider than it 
is long, the ordinary screen (cream tinted) is satis- 
factory; where the room is long, and also where the 
reflectoscope will be used, the " aluminum " screen 
(cloth covered with some special aluminum paint) 
should be installed. 



For the auditorium, the best screen is the white plas- 
tered wall at the rear of the stage ; but as the stage is 
likely to be filled with " scenery " it is well to have an 
additional screen on a spring-roller. This should be 
mounted on a frame and hung from pulleys so that the 
frame may be hoisted out of the way when not in use. 
The screen is held taut when in use by short cords at- 
tached to the lower corners of the screen with snap 
catches which engage with rings set in and flush with 
the stage floor. These not only prevent swaying 
(which spoils the pictures), but also allows the bottom 
of the screen to be pulled forward until it is exactly at 
right angles with a line from the center of the screen to 
the lantern lens. The plastered wall of course cannot 
be so adjusted, but if the lantern is not too high, the 
distortion is not very noticeable. 

To sharply define the outline of the picture and at 
the same time correct any slight errors in adjustment, 
a flat black border should be painted around the edges 
of the screen and extended 3 inches inside of the outer 
border of the picture. 

Electric Wiring and Current Supply. — For all but 
the small lanterns using the gas-filled lamp, a heavy 
current is necessary, and an outlet lock-box with fuses 
and switch should be installed at each place where a 
lantern is to be used. In a very large room (audito- 
rium) two extra wires, for buzzer-signal or telephone, 
should be run from the stage to the operator's booth. 

Current Supply. — Direct current is a necessity for 
all experimenting involving storage batteries, electro- 
plating, elementary electrical laws, moving picture 
projections, etc., and is desirable for all projection 
lanterns using an arc lamp ; so a reliable source of its 
supply should be provided. (An exception to the above 
statement is that the very latest invention of an extra 
high intensity gas-filled lamp makes it possible to run 
moving picture machines with alternating current ; 
but the cost of bulbs for renewals makes them almost 
prohibitive for most schools.) In the rare case where 
no or 115 volt direct current street service is available, 
it may be run to the main distributing board and no 
provision need be made for alternating current except 
where special courses are given in that subject. 

In the usual case, the street service is alternating and 
may be either single phase or polyphase. If both are 
within reach, so much the better. Some means of 
rectifying or changing this alternating current to direct 



must be used, and of all the various schemes employed, 

1 Many smaller and cheaper machines besides those mentioned are on the market, and they have two great advantages: — ist, Having a 
gas-filled lamp for light-source, they allow the film to be stopped for some time without damage from heating. 2d, They are more portable 
and can be used in a small room from an ordinary lamp socket. The second point can be met, in some schools, by mounting the large projector 
on a carriage which can be wheeled about the building, and it can be used in small rooms by substituting a different objective lens and providing 
outlets for the heavy current (30 to 35 amperes) required. The large machines are more durable and usually give much better projection, besides 
being less likely to injure the film. 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



355 



at present one stands out as far superior — a direct- 
connected motor-generator set of one of the standard 
makes, of from 5 horsepower up, with its necessary attach- 
ments. This should be selected under the supervision 
of an electrical engineer, who should be furnished with 
data on the maximum demand to be made upon the 
machine. 

Slides. — An excellent assortment of slides for in- 
struction in scientific lines (including portraits of fa- 
mous men of science) is now for sale by such companies 
as the Central Scientific Co., Chicago ; Knott Apparatus 
Co., Boston; Keystone View Co., Meadville, Pa.; 
C. H. Stoelting Co., Chicago. A fine series of wood 
sections (mounted for projection), also views of trees, 



bark, leaf, etc., is offered by Mr. R. B. Hough, Low- 
ville, N. Y. 

Slides can be made with the school camera as follows : 
1st: If negatives can be borrowed, it is only neces- 
sary to support them in front of a uniformly illuminated 
white surface (or toward the sky) and photograph 
them on a regular lantern-slide plate. The proper size 
(a little smaller than the plate) must be indicated on the 
ground-glass of the camera, in pencil. 2d: A picture, 
diagram, or plate in a book can be supported in a strong 
light at right angles with the axis of the lens of the 
camera and photographed as just described, but in this 
case producing a negative. This, being the correct 
size, can be printed by direct contact (films together, 



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356 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 306. — Physics Lecture Room, Oakland 
black cloth backing) on another slide, thus producing 
a positive. The positive has its film side covered by a 
clean cover-glass, and a binding-strip, cut into four 
pieces, fastens the two together and completes the 
slide. 

Moving Picture Films. — The assortment now (1918) 
within reach of educators is very limited, but certain 
firms have made a start and much is to be hoped for in 
the future. 

Education films are now for rent and some of them 
are excellent. The teacher in charge of the matter 
should try to see them himself before exhibiting them. 
He should avoid the mawkish " historical film " (so- 
called) on the one hand and the uninteresting " How 
Canned Soup is Made " type on the other. 

Used " regular " reels can be used if selected with 
care. 

School Camera. — A kind of universal or general 
utility plate camera (say 5"X7") having an extension 
bellows and several extra plate-holders is of very great 
use to the school in general as well as to the science 



Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



department. It serves to preserve visual records of 
" great events " in the school, to photograph exhibi- 
tions of students' work, to make lantern slides, to serve 
as a practical illustration in Physics and to demonstrate 
in the study of the Chemistry of Photography. 

A fairly good instrument can be obtained for from $25 
to $45. 

Laboratory Breakage Fund. — A science lecture course, 
where the instructor does the experiments, requires 
very little for upkeep ; but all courses where students do 
the experimenting need constant and close supervision, 
prompt repairs, and frequent replacement. 

The Board of Trustees can very properly be ex- 
pected to provide a yearly (or twice yearly) allowance 
for the larger repairs, replacement, and apparatus 
for new courses, etc. But students must be provided 
at once with a new piece for a broken piece of apparatus, 
and a new supply at once if a certain necessary chemi- 
cal, for example, is used up. Two methods for raising 
this fund in case the school does not pay for a student's 
breakage are suggested : one is to have each student 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



357 



contribute a certain fixed amount on entering the course 
and pay his individual breakage later; the other is to 
have him make a larger " deposit," the balance, after 
the fixed amount and breakage are subtracted, being 
returned at the end of the course. 

II. Physics. The Physics Lecture Room (See figure 
No. 305.) — For certain experiments in Light, sunlight 
is necessary. This must be available at all hours of the 
day because in large schools recitations occur at every 
period, and even in small ones, it is better to avoid inter- 
rupting the school program. Therefore the room should 
be on the south side of the building and preferably on a 
projecting wing. Furthermore, in many experiments 
in Sound a quiet room is required ; therefore, in locating 
this room, attention should be given to this fact. 

Seating. — There is no doubt that the raised bank of 
tablet chairs gives the student a distinct advantage in 
seeing the demonstrations, and it gives the instructor the 
same advantage in observing the student. The depth 
allowed for each row of chairs should be from 34" to 
38", depending upon the length of the tablet of the 
chair, and the rise for each 6" to 11", depending upon 



the height of the ceiling and the length of the room. By 
far the best way for light to enter is from the student's 
left side, so the chairs should be faced accordingly ; and 
as crosslights are unendurable, and neither class nor 
instructor can face the light, it follows that windows 
should be on one side only, which may be supplemented 
with skylights if necessary. 

Seating Capacity. — Assuming the laboratory section 
to consist of from 20 to 24 pupils, and it should not 
exceed the latter figure, and as it is sometimes conven- 
ient (especially in large schools where program arrange- 
ments are difficult) to place two laboratory sections in 
one lecture section, a minimum of fifty tablet chairs 
should be provided. Any number between this and 
one hundred is therefore satisfactory, the size of the 
room being partly determined by the general build- 
ing plan. 

Blackboards and Chart-Posting Space. — The black- 
boards should - be of good quality, to avoid reflec- 
tion of light, and where several subjects are taught 
or where more than one teacher uses the room, one 
or two sets of vertically sliding blackboards should be 



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358 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





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PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



359 



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installed. These should consist of two sliding pieces 
mounted in front of the usual board, counterweighted 
and fitted with small rollers at the edges to prevent the 
sliding pieces from binding. The fixed boards may 
be of slate, but the sliding pieces may better be of some 
material which will not weigh so much nor be subject 
to breakage. A chart-posting space (all the front 
space of the room not occupied by blackboard) should 
be provided by having a heavy cloth or canvas fastened 
to the wall, and finished in the same manner as the 
remainder of the room. 

Lantern Screen. — The selection of the proper screen 
has been mentioned previously. It should be on a 
spring-roller and be mounted in the center of the front 
of the room. 

Framed "Pictures. — The walls may be ornamented 
with framed pictures of the great men of science, or of 
industrial applications of Physics. A bulletin board 
of some kind is a necessity. 

Electric Circuits. — The experimental electric circuits 
are distinct from those for lighting and those for projec- 
tion lanterns. The terminals should be at the end or 
back* of the lecture table (not on the wall) and 'the 
strength of the currents used can best be controlled by 
a switchboard visible to the students, several designs 
for which are shown in figures 307, 308, and 309. 
The number of wires to be run from the source of supply 
depends upon the kind of service available, but should 
be at least five in number, two for direct or single- 
phase alternating current and three for two or three- 
phase service. 

The subjects of furniture, plumbing, shades, and 
ventilation have been mentioned previously. 

Overhead Fixtures for Mechanics. — For many ex- 
periments in Mechanics heavy objects and various 
machines (as the block and tackle) must be suspended 
from the ceiling. One method of providing for this 
is to have a number of strong hooks fastened to the 
floor or ceiling beams of the building and projecting a 



short distance from the ceiling. A better plan is to 
have a piece of two-inch pipe about twelve feet long 
fastened firmly (at three points) so as to be about one 
foot from the ceiling and vertically above the front 
of the lecture table. Two iron rings (one on each part) 
slipped on the pipe may have chains attached, terminat- 
ing in hooks at a convenient height. See figure 310. 
( Note : This idea was published, the writer believes, in 
" School Science and Mathematics " a year or more ago, 
but he is unable to recall the name of the author.) 

Special Illumination. — If the lecture room is to 
be used for evening school work or for other even- 
ing gatherings, two or three " scoop " reflectors, e.g 




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PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



361 




Fig. 316. — Physics Laboratory, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



Benjamin No. 5525 angle reflecting socket (see Figure 
311), each holding a 200-watt gas-filled lamp, should 
be placed over and in front of the lecture table, in addi- 
tion to the usual illuminants. These must be out of 
the way of the light from the projection lantern -and 
should be on a separate circuit. In a narrow room it 
may be desirable to mount the lantern screen diagonally 
across one corner of the room to avoid having these 
special lights interfere with projection. The lantern, of 
course, would be changed to the correct location. 

Some form of " trough lighting " may be used in- 
stead. 

Storeroom for the Lecture Room Apparatus. — This ap- 
paratus is very bulky and yet must be kept in dust- 
proof cabinets. It is totally different from laboratory 
apparatus and must be left " set-up " so that it can be 
carried quickly to the lecture table. This means that a 
room at least 8'Xio' should be fitted up with glass- 
front cabinets running clear to the ceiling (movable 
shelves) immediately adjacent to the lecture room, 
except where an extra large lecture room may have the 
necessary space for these cabinets at the back and 
sides. This storeroom may have artificial light only, as 
it is only occupied for a few minutes at a time. 



The Laboratory. — Certain experiments, as the manu- 
facture of ice by the evaporation of ether or setting up 
a mercury barometer, are expensive or use expensive 
material, and are essentially lecture table experiments. 
Others, as seeing through gold-leaf or the projection of 
the spectrum in a dark room, while simple, can be shown 
to a whole class at once, and are also commonly given 
in the lecture room. On the other hand, certain funda- 
mental experiments, in each of the great subdivisions 
of physics, must be done by the individual students 
in order that they may get a real foundation in the 
subject. Hence the necessity for laboratory work. 
The plan shown in Figure 312 is for a large school with 
overcrowded classes (35 to 40) and can be adapted to 
smaller rooms where such conditions do not exist. Large 
working space is provided because the students progress 
from one table to another, and new experiments must 
be set up ahead in proper sequence. 

Good lighting is the first essential. The light should 
not come from two opposite sides, but can well come 
from one side and the end of the room. 

Equipment. — The customary built-in cabinets may 
occupy the side away from the windows, and a wall 
table be built under the windows and of the same height 



362 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 317. — Physics Laboratory, Oakland Tec 
as the other tables. A room with a wall table gives 
greater table space than the same-sized room without it. 

A number of laboratory binder cabinets (see Figure 
313) should be placed near the door (three are used in 
laboratory of Figure 312). These should be built in if 
possible. 

Stools should have solid wood tops and be 26" high. 
If the floor is wood the stools should be rubber-tipped ; 
if linoleum is used, they should have metal " smooth-ons." 

A very satisfactory type of table is shown in Figure 314. 
It has the advantage of simplicity, its top is absolutely 
clear, it has two drawers for the reception of the armful 
of books which the average student carries on his travels 
about the building, and is high enough to allow the 
stools to go underneath, thus allowing the passage- 
ways between tables to be cleared in an instant. 
These tables have a very desirable freedom of motion 
which is impossible where the gas pipes or electric con- 
duits are fastened to them. 

Direction Boards (Figure 318) are a necessity where 
the laboratory directions are typewritten, as the typed 



Mt. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

hnical High School, Oakland, California. 
sheets are tacked up on the boards and are thus out of 
the way of spilled liquids, etc. The boards also furnish 
clean places to rest reference books. The dimensions 
for the double boards are correct for the laboratory 
tables mentioned above. Single boards are required 
for the wall tables and also where the laboratory tables 
are very wide. In the latter case, therefore, no double 
boards need be ordered. 

The gas pipes and the electric conduits should be 
laid under the floor, the gas nozzles being placed just 
below the body of the table, the electric terminals about 
2 feet from the floor line. The tables are thus not only 
movable, but no iron occurs on the surface of the table, 
a condition favorable to certain experiments in mag- 
netism and electricity. 

A useful type of laboratory switch-board or lamp- 
board, whose wires run to the sockets mentioned above, 
is shown in Figure 321. This is "fool-proof" and allows 
several sets of students to work at one time. When the 
lamps are lit the instructor is informed as to what is 
going on. Also, no argument should be necessary as 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



363 






BOARDS OF ANY CLOSE. 
GRAINED SOFT WOOD. 
ALL SURJACES SANDED. 
ALL .5URJACE.S PAINTED 
WITH BLACtC SHELLAC, 
FACES FINISHED WITH 
AN OIL-fUJBBED DULL 
.SURFACE. 



D0U5U 



DIRECTION BOARDS 

Fig. 318. 



SINGLE, 



to the immense superiority of dynamo current to that 
from most troublesome batteries. 

By leaving a little space at one end of the laboratory, 
which should be extra large on this account, and hav- 
ing a lecture table and a few tablet chairs there, the 
laboratory can be used as a lecture room. This over- 
comes the frequent difficulty of having the lecture room 
in demand by the principal or a teacher, when it is pro- 
grammed for the physics class. This provides tem- 
porary recitation space when the lecture room is already 
occupied, and the teacher of the laboratory section 
wishes to change the laboratory period to a recitation 
period. Two or more storerooms should be adjacent 
to the laboratory. These can be fitted up as dark rooms, 
as described later. 

Cabinet and Drawer Locks. — So much of the ap- 
paratus is valuable (opera-glass, telescope, camera, 
pocket barometers, pocket compasses) and so many 
small tools (steel rules, micrometers, pliers, wrenches) 
are easily stolen, it is desirable to be able to lock most 
of the cabinets and drawers. To save the instructor 
endless delay and carrying an enormous bunch of keys, 
a set of good locks with a single key should be ordered 
ahead of time from a reliable lock-making firm. 

Wall Cabinets. — Two types of wall cabinets are 
shown in Figure 319. These are of two shapes, to fit into 
narrow or wide wall spaces, and should be fitted with 
the locks just mentioned. They are useful in all of 
the science rooms. 

Storerooms. — The physics laboratory table pre- 
viously referred to is sometimes made into a massive 
affair with large numbers of drawers built down to the 
floor. This not only leaves the room cluttered with 
stools, but also gives extra work to the janitor and 
makes it difficult to find apparatus stowed away in the 
drawers. The laboratory itself should be lined with 
glass-front cabinets where some of the apparatus can 



be kept. For the larger portion an excellent plan is to 
have two more rooms (lined with shelves) which may 
have artificial light only, which provide a place for 
classifying apparatus so that it may be kept in order 
and found at short notice when required. These rooms, 
if provided with means for ventilation, can also be used 
for dark rooms, as mentioned in the next section. 

Dark Rooms for " Light " and for Photography. — A 
number of important experiments in " light " (photom- 
eter, spectroscope, focal length of lenses) require a 
dark room 8'Xi2'. Two rooms at least are needed 
so that two sets of students can work without mutual 
interference. Storerooms can be used by the installing 
of a wall table, covering the entire interior of the rooms 
with a good quality of non-glare paint (cement mixed 




364 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



with ordinary black paint will do) and providing the 
necessary forced ventilation. This should be planned 
by the ventilating engineer. A small airtight room 
soon becomes uninhabitable when occupied by two 
or more students with a gas jet or two. A room used 
for photography should be scientifically ventilated, and 
the need for complete exclusion of daylight is greater 
still. Even if a dark room has been planned for the 
work in chemistry, another should be set aside for 
physics. A very good feature, if space is available, is 



5AFE.-LIQHT WITH 
5UDE.S FOR. COLOR- GU. ON BOTH SIDES. 




PHOTOGRAPHIC DAR.H ELGDM 



to have a U-shaped entrance so that entrance may be 
made without opening a door. (See Figure 320.) 

The gas nozzles for spectroscopic and other experi- 
ments as well as special electric circuits for experiments 
with vacuum tubes, etc., should be provided in these 
rooms in addition to the circuits for lighting. 

III. Applied Physics. Special Laboratories. — Just 
as in agricultural communities the people are demand- 
ing that their children be instructed in agriculture, 
and in places where mining is the leading industry the 
high school cannot afford to neglect assaying and min- 
eralogy, so in most cities the public are usefully served 
if the pupils are given work which will benefit not only 



the minority who go to college, but also the majority 
who do not. 

A growing demand, which would be overwhelming if 
•our communities took the direct interest in their chil- 
dren's welfare to which its importance entitles it, makes 
it desirable to establish courses which may be labeled as 
follows : mechanics, strength of materials, steam and gas 
engines, hydraulics, direct and alternating current electricity. 
It is not pretended that these courses will turn out 
the equivalent of that turned out by the corresponding 
university course ; but the plumber's 
helper, or the beginner in an auto- 
mobile repair shop, will rise more 
quickly if he has had a course in 
elementary physics, followed by one 
in the lines mentioned. The con- 
tractor, the builder of stone or brick 
or concrete houses, the men in the 
foundries, the machine shop, the fac- 
tory, the automobile business, the 
telephone and telegraph companies, 
the electrical and wireless industries, 
the boiler and engine rooms, all need 
a foundation of this kind. These 
courses correlate well with the con- 
tinuation and part-time schools being 
organized in a few parts of the 
country. They are especially well 
adapted to evening schools also. 
Lecture courses (with experimental 
demonstrations) along these lines 
have been given with marked success 
in some places, as part of the uni- 
versity extension movement. The 
first thing is to get the necessary 
money to equip laboratories for the 
courses spoken of. 

The public, the school adminis- 
trators, the boards of education, the 
superintendents, the principals (many 
of whom, unfortunately, from the very nature of their 
training as administrators have never done laboratory 
work themselves) must then be educated to the fact 
that such work is, expensive. Classes must be small 
(18 to 24 students only), rooms fitted with heavy appara- 
tus and machines cannot be used for other purposes, 
and the apparatus is very costly. For example, a small 
(3 horse power) gas engine, flywheel generator belted 
to it, with other attachments cost (in 1915) $262.00; 
the cheapest universal testing machine made by one of 
the best known companies, 10,000 pounds capacity, 
cost (same date) $300.00 ; a motor-driven 3 horse power 
centrifugal pump cost $227.00; and so forth. 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



365 




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It is to be kept in mind that the following laboratories 
are to be in addition to the physics laboratory, and, 
as mentioned before, the corresponding courses are to 
follow a fundamental course in physics. This is to be done 
by giving the second year of high school to physics and 
the following two years to some of the special subjects. 

Similar courses in mechanical drawing, machine shop, 
etc., are desirable ; and the customary courses in mathe- 
matics (algebra and plane geometry) should be insisted 
upon. Much of the work in the applied physics courses 
can be done with the aid of arithmetic alone, but algebra, 
plane geometry, and sometimes trigonometry are also 
' necessary. 

Laboratory for Mechanics, Strength of Materials and 
Hydraulics. — A well-lighted room, with a floor spe- 
cially designed to hold great weight, is necessary for the 
first two subjects. (See Figure 322.) For mechanics, one 
essential is some form of A-frame, wood or metal, nearly 
the height of the room, to be used for the suspension of 
pulleys, differential and duplex chain-hoists, etc. The floor 
beams above may be designed for this purpose. Some 
cubes of concrete (150 to 300 pounds), each provided with 
a strong hook, should also be obtained. 

Several small universal testing machines, hand driven, 



are far better than one high-power machine (same total 
cost) because, obviously, only two or three of the class 
can be kept busy if there is only one machine, the re- 
mainder of the students being spectators. The size 
of the room depends upon the amount of equipment to 
be installed. 

Experiments in Hydraulics. — For hydraulics, provi- 
sion must be made for the inevitable splashing of water. 
One way is to have the driving machinery (as motor and 
pump) inside the room and the measuring devices (weirs) 
in a protected or inclosed space outside where condi- 
tions permit. Experiments with high-head and low-head 
centrifugal pumping, the use of the weir, the hook gauge, 
the reciprocating pump, the Pelton type of water wheel, 
and the hydraulic ram are desirable, and the closely re- 
lated subject of compressed air can be studied by experi- 
mentation with small fans, centrifugal blowers, and a 
compressor set. Three or four tanks are required for 
the hydraulic experiments : one on the roof to supply 
the impulse wheel (a standpipe may be employed if the 
building is low), one or two for measuring the discharge 
of the pumps, and one large tank set lower than the 
pump-level for the general discharge and suction pipes. 
The impulse wheel should also be connected to the 




Q 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



367 




water supply of the building. Platform scales and a 
portable tank are also necessary. 

A few tablet chairs and a blackboard at one end of 
the laboratory give the lecture room facilities required. 
A lecture table is desirable. 

Steam and Gas Engine Laboratory. — This room also 
may require extra support for the floor on account of 
the weight of the machines in it. (See Figure 325.) 

A few experiments, as those on the measurement of 
heat and the properties of steam, can be done with simple 
apparatus ; but the study of steam and gas engines 
must be made with the engines themselves. If the 
school has a steam or gas engine as part of the general 
plant, observations at least can be made on it. (Some- 
times the students can help in actual tests, as in taking 
indicator diagrams; sometimes they can be used in 
regular shifts.) If not, visits can be made to power 
stations using large engines or turbines. Indicator 
cards may be taken from an air-compressor set if it is 
not too small. 

The detailed study, however, should be made in the 



laboratory, as follows : first, small models of engines (sec- 
tional) can be purchased from the apparatus dealers ; 
second, models for the study of crank and cross-head 
motion, eccentrics, types of valves, valve-motion, lap 
and lead, angular advance, etc., can be constructed of 
wood or metal by the students (see Ripper, " Heat En- 
gines," Perry, " The Steam Engine," etc.) ; third, old 
parts of steam and gas engines can be bought cheaply 
from second-hand dealers, particularly junk men. Fre- 
quently machines which have passed through a fire can 
be cleaned up and used for study. 

A few small engines which will really operate are very 
desirable. Steam engines can be run for demonstra- 
tion purposes by compressed air. Many gasoline 
engines can be adapted to the school gas-supply by 
simply removing the carburetor and putting a small 
gas bag (of heavy rubber) in the supply line. The gaso- 
line, for engines using it, must be handled in small 
quantities and with great care. The engines can be 
tested by attaching them to a Prony brake, dynamo, 
pump, or some form of dynamometer. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 324. — Elementary Mechanics Laboratory, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. 



The piping for compressed air, gas, and steam, also for 
exhaust and steam, should be planned beforehand by 
the instructor, in consultation with the engineer of the 
architect's staff. 

The size of this laboratory, like that of the previous 
one, depends upon the amount of machinery to be in- 
stalled. 

Laboratory for Direct and Alternating Current Elec- 
tricity. — The work in direct currents must precede that 
in alternating currents because the former is a founda- 
tion for the latter. For the same reason both are 
preceded by some work in the beginnings of electricity 
taken in Elementary Physics. 

The Machines. — Many of the machines and pieces 
of apparatus for alternating currents are different from 
those for direct currents, so a separate room is some- 
times desirable ; but as classes in these subjects (third 
and fourth years) are usually not numerous, one large 
room will suffice (1300 to 1800 square feet suggested). 
(See Figure 328.) The floor must be well supported in 
this room also. The three important things for the 



room are the machines, the measuring instruments, and 
the switchboard with its distributing wires. 

Representative machines (particularly motors and 
generators) must be provided. That is, while most of 
them may be small (| to 2 horse power) they must 
represent the important kinds of direct current, also 
single and polyphase alternating current machines in 
use to-day. 

One large machine (say 10 horse power) must, of course, 
be in commission all the time, so that, in conjunction 
with the street service, the main switchboard is supplied 
with direct, single-phase alternating and polyphase 
alternating currents. Of the small machines, the dy- 
namos must have means of driving them and the motors 
are to be provided with some easily controlled load 
(generator, fan, blower, friction brake, rheostats, etc.). 
Consultation with representatives of two or three of 
the largest electric manufacturing companies is recom- 
mended before purchasing machines. Good types for 
instruction purposes may often be obtained from dealers 
in second-hand machinery. 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



369 



The location of the machines should be planned care- 
fully. The best method of fastening them is to bolt 
them down to a solid concrete base one foot or more 
above the floor. Heavy wood benches are good, as they 
allow bolts to be shifted easily, but ordinary tables are 
not heavy enough and are noisy, for they act as sound- 
ing boards. 

Measuring Instruments. — Measuring instruments in- 
clude voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, and some others, 
as curve-drawing instruments, galvanometers, etc. They 
should be of the best quality (Weston or equivalent) 
and are expensive, but a fairly large supply is necessary. 
They must be handled very carefully, and a method of 
checking them out to students should be devised. In 
some cases a separate storeroom can have a counter 
over which the instruments can be checked out and in 
again by one of the reliable students or by an assistant. 

Switchboards. — 'A main switchboard, with the neces- 
sary meters and switches associated with the corre- 
sponding panels for distributing the various kinds of 
current to the places where it is to be used, is the first 
consideration. (For a suggestion, see Figure 330.) It 
should not be in a separate room, but should be in plain 
view of the instructor at all times. It is an extremely 
good plan to have the current for all the rooms of the 



Science Group, as well as that for the auditorium (for 
experimental demonstrations), and that for the projec- 
tion lanterns, controlled from this board. The board 
should be of standard power-plant type and its rear 
should be accessible to the students. Extra money spent 
on good construction is regained in durability ; but 
" fancy fittings " should be avoided — the writer was 
once allowed to view a high school switchboard made 
of very heavy plate glass ! 

In addition to the experimental switchboards in the 
various rooms of the Science Group, one or two boards 
are needed for the electrical laboratory. (For example, 
see Figure 309.) There must be a large number of cir- 
cuits (say 18) for student use. These are to be prefer- 
ably overhead, so that they can be supervised by the 
instructor. Each one of them should be on its own 
switch so that one group of students will not interfere 
with another group. 

The voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, power-factor 
indicator, and curve-drawing instruments of the main 
board may have a possible addition in the shape of a 
glass-inclosed watt-hour meter connected to one of the 
supply lines. If a frequency-indicator is desired, it 
should be portable, so that it can be used in various 
parts of the room. 




a TEAM AND GAS f,NCrlNE, lABOM-TOJqf 



5, C A 1, £., 



37° 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 326. — Corner of Steam Engine Laboratory, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. 



Lampbank. — The discussion of switchboards would 
not be complete without mention of a most useful type of 
" portable switchboard " called for convenience a lamp- 
bank. (See Figure 331.) A large number of these can be 
built at the school, the necessary expense being for the 
lamp-sockets, double-pole, double-throw switch, lamps, 
fuse-block, a small amount of wire and lamp-cord. The 
old style carbon 3 2 -candle-power lamps are good ones 
to use, but special resistance lamps for watt-hour meter 
loads may also be purchased. The lamp-banks should 
be built of various capacities. A suggested list follows : 
Four i-lamp, four 2-lamp, two each of 4-lamp, 8-lamp, 
16-lamp, making 14 boards. They are superior to all 
other resistance boards or rheostats because of the ease 
of supervision; and by providing an experiment with 
the proper lamp-bank the instructor may rest secure in 
the knowledge that the other apparatus furnished will 
not be ruined because of excessive current. 

Apparatus. — The key-note for the selection of lab- 
oratory experiments and the necessary apparatus for 



this performance should be " What is used in practice? " 
An experiment on an electric disk stove, fiat iron, or 
immersion heater is of more use than one on melting 
german-silver wire ; volt-meters are more used in prac- 
tical work than galvanometers ; determining the watts 
per candle power of a certain kind of tungsten or 
" Mazda " lamp is of value to every user of lamps; a 
study of telephone practice must be made with real 
telephone equipment, and so on. This apparatus, as 
well as the machinery, instruments, and switchboards 
mentioned above, is costly ; but if it is properly taken 
care of it will last indefinitely and be of use to class after 
class of students. 

Many manufacturers, instrument repair firms, and 
others are glad to donate parts of their machines or 
goods, which when mounted and labeled properly, 
make valuable display and lecture table material. 

Storerooms. — All three of the laboratories just 
mentioned should be provided with commodious store- 
rooms. 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 




Fig. 327. — Testing Internal Combustion Engines, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. 



372 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Lecture Rooms. — For courses in Applied Physics a 
well equipped lecture room is desirable; but the theo- 
retical and recitation work can be given in any class- 
room having a blackboard, and the instructor's demon- 
stration experiments may be given in the laboratory. 

All of the foregoing shows the need of designing the 
rooms of the department so as to house the equipment 
properly. 

IV. Chemistry. The Lecture Room. — The general 
features of a good science lecture room have been dis- 
cussed in Part II (Physics), and the statements made 
concerning the location of the room, raised bank of 
chairs, seating capacity, blackboards, lantern screen, 
framed pictures, experimental electric circuits, and spe- 
cial illumination apply with only slight modifications 
to a room used for chemical lecture experiments. The 
additional necessities are a means for forced ventila- 
tion, a fume closet, a large gas-supply nozzle, and pos- 
sibly a deeper sink. 

The lecture tables shown in figures 301 and 302 are suit- 
able, where the wide drawers can be used to hold charts, 
long glass tubing, etc. One very desirable addition 
(which may be incorporated in the design of the table) 
is a sheet of wire plate glass about 2 feet high by 3 feet 
wide, mounted vertically in the middle of the front edge 
of the table, so as to protect the nearest students in case 



of accidental spattering of acid, burning chemical, 
etc. This should be fitted with a hoisting and lower- 
ing device, or be on a stand so as to be movable. 
" A number of refinements may be added. A hoist- 
ing device for a large glass pneumatic trough, worked 
by a crank, is very convenient. So is a method of 
darkening the room by having all of the dark shades 
lowered simultaneously. This is done in some Ger- 
man lecture rooms by a crank and gears on a long shaft ; 
in some American colleges they are lowered or raised by 
a geared electric motor attached to wire cables. 

Storerooms for Lecture Table Apparatus. — One or 
more rooms (located near the lecture room) should be 
fitted up with movable shelves covering the entire sides 
of the rooms. Two hundred square feet of floor space 
will probably be sufficient. 

The Chemistry Laboratory. — Figure 332 gives a labo- 
ratory plan which allows for thirty students as a maxi- 
mum. Here the students do not progress from one 
table to another, but each has his own place. Another 
thing which distinguishes the room from the Physics 
laboratory is the fact that wider aisles are required on 
account of the possibility of one student spilling acids 
on another (if room is crowded) in carrying them to his 
table. The plan provides for tablet chairs and a lecture 
table, thus making the room (where there are not two or 




AffUED - ELECTRICITY - EABOfLATOR-Y 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 




Fig. 329. 



more classes at any one period) independent of the 
lecture room. In crowded schools, by having two 
teachers, one class may be reciting in a separate room 
while the other is in the laboratory ; but in very large 
schools two or more laboratories are necessary. 

The fume-hood should be large (at least 8 feet long), 
well lighted preferably by daylight or if not by a power- 
ful vapor-proof electric light, and ventilated mechani- 
cally. A large opening near the ceiling of the labora- 
tory (having a separate fan) provides adequate exhaust 
ventilation for the room at the times required. The 
motors for both these exhaust fans should have switches 
(with keys in the hands of instructor) so that they may 
be turned on when injurious or offensive gases are being 
studied, and turned off to save current when not needed. 

The previous discussion under Physics of lighting, 
stools, and storerooms applies also to Chemistry. Lin- 
oleum has been found to be a good material for floors. 
The wall cabinets marked " reagent cases " differ from 
those used in Physics because of their shallowness. 
They allow for one row of bottles only. The shelves 



should be movable, and most of the cabinets should 
have glass doors. Sliding doors, if well fitted, are more 
convenient in a crowded room than those which swing 
out on hinges. Grease-traps (useful for catching 
matches, broken bits of glass, etc.) may be under each 
table or one large one may be used for the entire room. 
An alternative scheme is to use hoppers at the end of 
each table. Cases for laboratory binders may be sepa- 
rate or " built in " as shown. The wall-table provides a 
place for many special experiments, especially for those 
on electrolysis. 

Switchboard. — A design for a switchboard is shown 
in Figure 335. This provides for four sets of terminals. 
Any apparatus connected to " C " or " D " is in series 
with the lamps, and wires attached to binding-posts 
p 1 and p 2 may be touched without together causing 
damage. Si and S 2 represent small snap switches, 
these and the binding-posts to be mounted about one 
foot above the wall table. Five sets of these, in parallel, 
allow ten students to work at one time without inter- 
fering with each other. " A " and " B " are connected 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



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directly to the line (say 115 volts) and must be used with 
caution. (Touching wires will blow fuse.) If ioniza- 
tion experiments are to be done by the students it is a 
good plan to run wires from switch " A " to four or five 
sockets above the electrolysis table, connecting them to 
binding-posts as shown in the lower left-hand corner 
of Figure 335. These sockets may have the ordinary 
electric bulbs, and the student can note the conductivity 
of the solution by watching the glow of his lamp. The 
case with hinged door, covering the board, prevents 
corrosion of metal of switches, etc. 

Laboratory Tables. — A very useful type of labora- 
tory table is shown in Figure 336. The raised shelf pro- 
vides a place for the ordinary reagents and helps in 
keeping acids, etc., off the table top. The tops are of 
wood, which is far better than any material like tile or 
glass because it keeps down breakage. The design 
calls for an unfinished top so that one of the good acid 
and alkali-proof finishes (as the well-known aniline oil 
preparation) can be applied. One distinctive feature 
is the use of a deep drawer which allows the student to 
preserve his test tubes, containing liquids, until the next 
period. Another is the use of the clear glass partition, 
preventing one student from interfering with the one 
opposite, allowing the teacher to see what is going on, 



and providing a barrier for the occasional slight explo- 
sion of a flask or tube. An improvement is to have the 
top of this reagent shelf of plate glass. 

Each student has therefore a working space of three 
feet, with one gas nozzle, one clean arm or book rest, 
and half of one sink. Six different sections of students 
can use these tables. A good key system should be 
worked out and key cabinets (as many as there are 
sections) should be placed on the wall near the binder 
cabinets. (See Figure 335.) 

Distilled water for use in experiments must be pro- 
vided for, and an efficient still, gas heated, is usually 
the best way to get it. The plumbing for the large 
gas burner (for the still) as well as that for the circu- 
lating water, should be arranged for. 

The Balance Room. — A balance room, at least 8' X 15', 
for delicate scales, should be adjacent to the laboratory, 
and a glass partition places it under the teacher's super- 
vision. A quiet room is needed because draughts of 
air interfere with accurate work, and the room being 
separate can be kept free from the fumes which would 
corrode the balances. The subject of vibration was dis- 
cussed under I (3), "Location of Rooms of Science Group." 
A vestibule entrance from the laboratory to the balance 
room is very desirable if the space is available. 



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PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



377 




Where the funds available will only allow of equipping 
one laboratory, which must be used for both Chemistry 
and Physics, one or two tables on the plan of the one 
shown in Figure 336 and a few like that of Figure 315 will 
provide for experimentation by the students. If no 
science lecture room is planned, some tablet chairs 
and a lecture table like the one indicated in Figure 301 
may be placed in one end of the laboratory. 

V. Applied Chemistry. 1 

Planning of Courses. — In almost every high school 
the time for an extra year (the fourth) in chemistry 
can be arranged for by having the regular chemistry in 
the third year. In the schools where the student makes 
his choice of course (college or non-college) at the end 
of the first year, an elementary course in chemistry can 
be given (in addition to physics) in the second year. 
This allows the courses described here to be given in 
the third and fourth years. 

Technical Chemistry. (For young men.) — ■ The Labora- 
tory. A well-lighted room is essential. The plumbing 
for gas and water, ventilation, reagent cases, switch- 



boards, etc., have been mentioned previously. For 
this work a balance room with six to ten good balances 
(mounted on piers or other solid foundations) is an 
absolute necessity. 

Any style of good laboratory table may be used, but 
the " individual chemical desk " shown in Figure 337 
offers a number of advantages. This has the aluminum 
fume hood of Mr. S. E. Coleman, Oakland, California, 
which may be obtained in twos or in fours. The table 
top may be of wood (treated as previously mentioned) 
but as students are more experienced, maybe of harder 
material, as vitrolite glass, porcelain, or one variety 
(black) of asbestos board. Storerooms, distilled water 
supply, etc., should, of course, be provided. 

Choice of Courses. — The subject of Technical Chem- 
istry is such a large one that only an illustrative list of 
the course titles can be given here. The choice should 
be made with due regard to the needs of the immediate 
community as well as of the opportunities in the state. 

Suggested Lines of Work Are : Qualitative and quan- 
titative analysis, agricultural chemistry, chemistry of 



1 Just as in the case of Physics, the college preparatory chemistry follows a somewhat standardized line of work. For the pupils who do not 
intend to enter college there is a broad field which is greatly neglected by those who plan high school courses of study. Those outlined here are 
separated into two groups, the first for the young men, the other for young women. 



PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 



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384 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the engine room, electro-chemistry, the chemistry of 
iron and steel, of glass, borax, leather, paint, dyes, 
fuels, illuminating -and lubricating oils, foods and 
adulterants, coal tar products, synthetic insulating 
materials, wood preservatives, and other manufactures. 
If assaying is to be taken up, a separate room should be 
fitted up, with blowers, gas supply, etc., as the smoke 
and dust from the furnaces would interfere with the 
chemical work. 

Household and Domestic Chemistry, the Chemistry of 
Foods. (Girls.) — ■ Educators will agree that a knowl- 
edge of the life sciences (biology, physiology, etc.) is 
of the utmost importance to women; but there should 
also be a place for some instruction in chemistry for 
every woman who has anything to do with the affairs 
of the household. 

If the girl enters high school only as a preparation for 
college she need take only the usual one year of high 
school chemistry ; but if she is of the great majority 
who never expect to go to college and who drop out 
before completing the high school course, the work here 
mentioned should be of great value. It is to be started 
in the second year (after one year of general science) 
so that those who only attend for two years will be 
benefited. If only one additional year can be allowed 
in the curriculum, much good work can be done ; but 
the responsible work of food analysis, etc., can be 
carried out only by young women in the fourth year, 
who have had two years previous training in chemistry. 

Household Chemistry. (Second year girls.) — This 
first course must necessarily be largely on the elements 
of chemistry, but the teacher can find numberless ap- 
plications in the households of the parents of the girls, 
and some of the chemistry of cleaning and dyeing 
textiles can be covered. 

Domestic Chemistry. (Third year.) — This may well 
include the chemistry of soaps, the beginnings of food 
chemistry, a study of milk supply of cities (with the 



tests of butter fat and purity of milk) and the ele- 
mentary portions of the chemistry of cooking. 

Chemistry of Foods. (Fourth year.) —Besides the 
study of the composition, heat values and preserva- 
tion of foods, some real food analysis can be taken up ; 
also the chemistry of digestion, of the nutritive values 
of food, of food preservation, of yeasts and molds, the 
sanitary analysis of water, and the subject of disin- 
fection. 1 

Lighting of Laboratories Used for Evening Work. — 
The light for most laboratory work should be nearly 
as strong as that for mechanical drawing, and the 
lighting fixtures, etc., should be planned by an illumi- 
nating engineer. 

Technical Education for Adults, for Crippled Soldiers. — 
Grown people who have been denied educational op- 
portunities in youth, or who are forced to change 
occupation, can benefit from these courses when they 
are put before them, as by university extension or other 
evening-school plans. 

It is hoped that the courses may also aid greatly in 
the rehabilitation of and finding occupation for returned 
army and navy men incapacitated for their former 
work. (E.g. armature winding is now being done by 
blinded men.) 

One Forcible Lesson from the War. — The incon- 
venience and the danger of our hastily organized 
emergency war instruction in technical subjects as a 
part of our war effort, and the hurried search for places 
and equipment to give such instruction, should impel 
us to greater efforts in the direction of better technical 
schools. The excellence of the European technical 
schools has been known to educators for a long time. 
Let us hope that the lesson will not be forgotten, and 
that schools giving such courses will be so strongly 
demanded by the people that there will be many finely 
equipped ones instead of those now conspicuous by 
their scarcity. 



1 These subjects overlap the field of dietetics, commonly given in the "domestic science" department of the high school, but the dividing line 
can be sharply drawn by deciding that the work requiring a chemical laboratory for its performance is chemistry, and that which does not may be 
properly included in the other departments. The latter may be labeled the "household arts" department, or perhaps some title can be found 
which does not include the word science. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 

By Edna Watson Bailey, Ph.D., Head of Science Department, University High School, Oakland, California 

I. Development of General Science and Biological Laboratory. II. Function of the Laboratory. III. The General Science 
Laboratory Plan. IV. The Biological Laboratory, (i) Its Function. V. Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Agriculture, Hygiene and 
Sanitation. VI. Biological Laboratory Facilities. VII. The Laboratory Plan, (i) Storerooms. (2) The Menagerie. (3) The 
Microscope. (4) Bacteriology. (5) The Outdoor Laboratory. 



Development of the General Science and Biological 
Laboratory. — Secondary education in science to-day is 
breaking away from academic ideals and developing in 
the direction of community usefulness to an extent which 
is bound to influence materially the planning of labora- 
tories. The growing tendency to make the school a com- 
munity center, functioning in the practical and spiritual 
concerns of the community, and the increased emphasis 
on vocational guidance and education, demand pro- 
vision for practical work in applied science. The 
modern high school laboratory must make possible the 
release of the student's initiative and his creative instinct 
in constructive work recognized by himself as worth 
doing. Good work of this sort can be and has been 
done in the old-fashioned laboratory, but under great 



Function of the Laboratory. — The ideal laboratory 
has as its function the setting free of the student from 
limitations of material convenience. First, he must be 
free from his teacher, independent as far as possible of 
her aid in securing materials and doing work ; second, 
from his class, able to work out his own problems 
without interfering with or being hampered by his 
neighbor ; and finally, he must be freed from the limi- 
tations of any one specialized science, free to use the 
material of all sciences as far as he needs it, and can 
command it. 

On the first point, Mr. Hodgdon, 1 a leader in the 
teaching of general science, has this to say : " In no part 
of school work is more practical psychology required 
than in the teaching of science. One of the chief faults 
of a teacher is to dominate a class. — The ideal place for 
a teacher is an out-of-the-way place in a classroom, 
trying to keep still." 

The average laboratory is very poorly provided with 
places for teachers to keep still in. The prominent 



" teacher's table " or " demonstration desk," usually 
the best equipped table in the room, often the only 
one provided with gas and water, shows all too plainly 
who is to be the " star performer " and who the audience. 
Since the teacher is to do the work, supplies and equip- 
ment are stored for his convenience, usually in locked 
cases, in a locked room. There is usually a lecture room 
between two or more of these " laboratories." Here 
recitations are conducted, and demonstrations given by 
the teacher. Such a plan presupposes that the teacher 
will not only originate the work, but also perform most 
of it. But the problem to-day is, how can a laboratory 
be planned to accommodate a class which is not domi- 
nated, but guided, by a teacher? 

While the details will vary with local conditions, 
there are certain characteristics of plan and equipment 
which will be found desirable. The common laboratory 
tools and supplies should be brought out of the locked 
storeroom and placed in cases along the walls where they 
will be most readily accessible to the greatest number. 
Since the problems and methods of work of the class are 
to be such as originate in the class, there must be pro- 
vision for class conference of the " round-table " sort, 
and obviously the number of students who can profit- 
ably participate will be smaller than the number that 
can play audience to a teacher's performance. In such 
a plan, there is no place for a rigid division into " labora- 
tory days " and " recitation days," but laboratory 
work and recitations are fused by the conception of a 
class accomplishing its purpose by all the means at its 
disposal. It is desirable to have this class conference in 
the room which is equipped for laboratory work. Does 
the modern science department have use then for a 
lecture room? Yes, indeed, for there are many people 
in any community from whom science classes can learn 
much, and a good lecturer will have an eager audience. 



1 Mr. D. R. Hodgdon, General Science Q 
385 



irterly, January, 1010. 




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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The preparation of special topics with accompanying 
demonstrations by members of a class has become an 
important part of science work as directed by some of 
our best teachers, and these student lecturers command 
respectful hearing from their mates. Since an audience 
may be many times as large as a class conference group, 
a science assembly room is needed and replaces the old 
fashioned " lecture room." It has so many possi- 
bilities of school and community service, inter-class 
and inter-school work, vocational guidance and co- 
operation of the school and the business world, that it 
contributes greatly to the living efficiency of the school. 

The second demand, concerning the liberation of the 
individual from the group, is not satisfied by the usual 
type of general science laboratory. The long tables, 
with materials stored at some remote and inaccessible 
point, are suited to a group of pupils all working under 
direction at the same task. The new laboratory must 
make provision for individual activity as far as possible, 
and for hobbies. This means tables designed to pro- 
vide a unit of laboratory equipment of gas, water, and 
electricity to not more than four students. Where 
the single or double table plan is adopted, it generally 
means providing no equipment at the table, because 
of the expense of individual plumbing, etc., but gas, 
water, and electricity must be provided somewhere in 
the room. This is not as satisfactory as planning on 
the basis of a four-student group. 

Books, microscopes, work-bench, tools, all must be 
as accessible as possible, in order that the class may 
not impede the individual, nor the individual disturb 
the class. Provision for hobbies involves facilities for 
making and caring for all sorts of collections and exhibit- 
cases for their display, good equipment for photography, 
provision for work with living plants and animals, and 
a well-equipped " tinker shop " with tools, lumber, 
and a generous supply of raw materials for chemical, 
mechanical, and electric projects. 

Finally, the modern laboratory for general science 
must be free from the limitations surrounding the labora- 
tories designed for the special sciences. Any high school 
general science laboratory which does not provide the 
facilities for making use of chemical knowledge in edu- 
cation is hopelessly inadequate. The same is true of 
physical and biological equipment. Microscopes are 
only an unwieldy one-eyed sort of magic spectacles, at 
once an aid and a powerful stimulant to the imagination, 
and so should be available to all curious youngsters. 
The tools of the bacteriologist also belong to all classes. 
Instruments for weighing and measuring, simple machines 
and mechanical devices, electrical equipment — the 
tools of physics are also indispensable. 

To sum up the characteristics of our ideal general 



science room : It will have developed a laboratory 
arrangement that facilitates group activity and pro- 
vides for individual initiative ; it will be so equipped 
as to set students and teacher free in the realm of the 
fundamental sciences, supplying the essential tools 
of them all ; it will provide tools in abundance, of the 
same sturdy excellence as those with which the work 
of the world is done, but will eliminate playthings and 
toys masquerading as " apparatus " ; and it will pro- 
vide abundant material and opportunity for creative 
activity. 

The General Science Laboratory Plan. — A plan which 
embodies the ideals set forth is shown in Figure 341 . The 
semicircle of chairs at one end of the long room, facing 
the blackboard, gives opportunity for class conferences, 
or individual work with reference material from the 
nearby bookcases (G), a sink to the right, and a fume 
hood (E) . Microscope lockers (H) , and storage cabinets 
(C) provide a ready access to demonstration material. 
An exhibit case (D) shows in a prominent and well- 
protected place work done by groups or individuals, 
material collected or loaned, models, etc. This case 
should serve as a bulletin board or " show case " of the 
fruits of the various class activities, and should be a 
center of interest to the whole school. Under the 
blackboard shallow drawers (F) provide storage space 
for charts and other material likely to be needed. The 
laboratory tables (K) provide two sinks, ample gas 
connections, and electrical outlets, and will accommodate 
eight students at each table. Another arrangement of 
facilities for using gas and water is shown in Figure 344, 
consisting of a lead-lined trough running the full length 
of the table and emptying into a deep sink at one end. 
This is preferred by some, while others find many dis- 
advantages in it. It does not provide as satisfactory 
facilities as does the arrangement shown in (K), but is 
less expensive. The deep sinks shown in (K) avoid 
spattering, serve as pneumatic troughs, and are useful 
in so many ways that the expense seems abundantly 
justified. Along the side of the room, under the bank 
of windows, a 24" wall-table (0) provides a well-lighted 
table space for use of maps, making of diagrams, etc. At 
the end of the room farthest from the conference group, 
a work-bench (Q) and tool cabinet (P) are shown. Across 
the room, in a corner removed from drafts, and accessible 
to the storeroom, are placed two electric incubators (I). 
Between the laboratory tables and the set of chairs are 
provided a sand table (N) and a place for keeping living 
plants and animals. The sand table needs no special 
description ; the " menagerie and aquarium " (M) is 
perhaps not quite so familiar to the reader, or so readily 
understood from the detail. It consists of a case with 
a zinc or galvanized-iron top, sloping toward the sink 




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(6" in"V) and protected at the sides by a four-inch 
curb. Above this runs a f" water pipe, equipped with 
several cocks. This is designed for the accommodation 
of a number of small aquaria, vivaria, ter-aquaria, and 
potted plants. Under classroom conditions, many small 
aquaria, easily supplied with running water, have been 
found more useful and more successful than the very 
large single aquarium. Beneath this table are four 
compartments 2 / X2 / Xi / , their walls made of \" mesh 
screen, and their floors of zinc-lined removable drawers. 
The base of these compartments should be about 2' 
above the floor. Everyone who has noticed the uni- 
versal human interest in living creatures, and repugnance 
for dead ones, will appreciate the possibilities of such a 
" live- table," as a storage place for the living material 
which students will bring. It is desirable to provide as 
much free space (at least 5') around this unit as possible, 
in order to have free access to this material. 

Such a room would provide a real workshop for the 
projects of a class of normally enthusiastic young people. 
Though designed primarily for the general science of the 
junior high school, it would serve for physiography, 
botany, zoology or geology in the senior high school, 
and could readily be adapted to instruction in any 
secondary science. 

The Biological Laboratory. Function. — Biology in 
the secondary schools has had a checkered career. It 
first appeared in the time of Huxley and Parker as a 
study of " types " of plant and animal life. Its in- 
spiration was the Darwinian thesis, and its mission the 
presentation of that thesis. The chief function of the 
course was to teach the theory of evolution by means 
of the facts of comparative anatomy, embryology, and 
paleontology, which constitute its basis. It was planned 
by great teachers, and it met an enthusiastic reception 
because it filled a real need in public education. The 
conception of organic evolution was a revolutionary one, 
and civilization halted until it could be assimilated and 
incorporated into the spirit of the times. How effect- 
ually this was done, the attitude of the present genera- 
tion bears witness. There are no more arguments as 
to the doctrine of " descent with modification," though 
there is some discussion as to the laws governing this 
descent. But the conception of a living world con- 
tinually creating a new world, of " I 'evolution creatrice" 
is implicit in our twentieth-century thinking. For 
the rapid diffusion of this point of view, we have to 
thank biologists like Huxley and Parker and the " type 
courses " they promulgated. Such courses, being con- 
cerned chiefly with comparative structural studies, 
needed little in the way of laboratory provision, beyond 



a table of the proper height for microscopic work and 
dissection, and storage facilities for material and tools. 
Such laboratories were planned and built, and one is 
tempted to think that builders of schools have not 
thought clearly concerning biological laboratories since 
the days of Huxley. 

The science of biology has traveled far in the inter- 
vening decades, and educational aims and methods 
have advanced even more rapidly. On one hand 
biology in the strict sense of the term is concerned 
chiefly with the physical chemistry of living stuff, and 
therefore, requires the facilities of a chemical laboratory. 
On the other hand, biology as a school subject is becom- 
ing more and more the study of relations among living 
creatures, especially between man and his living environ- 
ment, with reference particularly to advantages and 
disadvantages resulting therefrom for his health and 
purse. The phrase " civic biology " used as a title by 
two of the most recent texts 1 indicates the direction 
of the work. Biology of the modern academic type 
then demands as complete a laboratory equipment as 
do physics and chemistry, in addition to the strictly 
biological apparatus; while civic biology concerns 
itself with the great outdoors and community condi- 
tions primarily, such as infectious diseases, water supply, 
sewage disposal, forestry, game, etc., and also with the 
relationships between living creatures, as far as a minia- 
ture world can be maintained within laboratory walls. 
Furthermore modern education aims at tangible results : 
things to be done, created, improved, accomplished by 
the student. And for that reason we find the same 
necessity for tools and working facilities in a biological 
laboratory as we met in planning the general science labo- 
ratory. The fact that we are working with riving stuff, 
demanding exact conditions and unusual f acilities for care, 
makes the selection and provision of this equipment 
more difficult. 

Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Agriculture, Hygiene, and 
Sanitation. — Aside from the courses labeled " Botany " 
there are found in secondary curricula specialized sciences 
belonging to the biological group ; in the realm of pure 
sciences — botany, zoology, physiology ; and in applied 
sciences — agriculture, including plant and animal 
husbandry, hygiene, and sanitation. As specialized 
sciences, botany and zoology are giving way in many 
schools to applied or more generalized sciences. Where 
they are retained, they tend to develop into economic 
botany and zoology, in response to the demands of the 
time. Laboratory accommodations which are adequate 
for biology will be satisfactory for this work also, and 
will permit the expansion of old-fashioned systematic 



1 Hunter's Civic Biology, American Book Co. 
Hodge and Dawson, Civic Biology, Ginn & Co. 



THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 




Fig. 344. — General Science Laboratory, Schenley I 



work into something more nearly akin to every-day 
needs. So far as " physiology " is concerned, the word 
probably stands for more kinds of courses, less standard- 
ized, than are found under any other one high school 
subject. If given in the first two years of the high school, 
it approaches in content a general biology course, with 
emphasis on the human aspects. Where given in the 
last two years, it may be almost anything from text- 
book work in anatomy and physiology, to a well- 
organized course in general physiology, and hygiene, 
in the stricter sense of the words. For the former 
course, no laboratory is needed ; for the latter, a well- 
equipped biological laboratory is adequate. 

As regards the applied sciences, elementary agri- 
culture can be accommodated in a laboratory of the 
general science type ; in schools where this work is 
more completely developed, especially designed labora- 
tories will be needed. Hgyiene, taught as a laboratory 
subject, demands the same provisions as does biology. 



Biological Laboratory Facilities. — To the thought- 
ful student of secondary education, it is very apparent 
that the sciences, pure and applied, are in a state of 
transition. We shall never again have a formal academic 
division into specialized fields, any more than we shall 
go back to organization of our courses on the basis of 
text-book work. There will be constantly increasing 
efforts to afford opportunity for creative work by 
students, and thereby a chance for individual and com- 
munity betterment as a concrete result of this work. 
It is not an easy matter to plan a laboratory to fit 
exactly the needs of a class in biology ten years hence. 
But since school buildings are not built for a day, 
but for a generation, it would seem to be the part of 
wisdom to build a generalized biological laboratory in 
which all the essential tools of the special sciences are 
available, where classes and teachers will enjoy the 
greatest freedom in selecting problems and solving 
them. 




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THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGICAL LABORATORIES 



393 



Such a laboratory should offer : 

(i) Gas, water, electricity conveniently available 
for units of two to four students each. 

(2) Facilities for use and convenient storage of micro- 
scopes and accessories. 

(3) Provision for keeping plants and animals under 
observation in the laboratory. 

(4) Provision for plant and animal experimentation 
and cultivation on a scale impossible within the labora- 
tory. 

(5) Provision for free class and individual activity. 
The Laboratory Plan. — While the details of plan 

and equipment are bound to vary with local conditions 
and teachers, it is hoped that the accompanying lay-out 
of such a laboratory, suited to any of the biological 
group of sciences, may be of assistance. (See Figure 343.) 
A room about twice as long as wide, with its long axis 
east and west, in order to obtain north orientation, 
offers the most attractive possibilities for development. 
The general plan requires a laboratory and classroom 
in one, and does not demand a separate lecture room 
excepf where large groups of students, including several 
classes, are to be accommodated. One " science 
assembly room " as described in the discussion of the 
general science laboratory should be available for the 
use of the science department. 

There are unusually good opportunities for correla- 
tion in the work in biology with the needs and activities 
of the community. , This may often be greatly aided 
by talks by men and women who are working in some 
of the many fields of applied biology, and by reports of 
community projects carried on by individuals or groups 
from the school itself. For biology especially it is true 
that the community is the laboratory, not merely to add 
interest and vividness to the school work as in the 
inorganic sciences, but to be itself the chief material 
of the school work in this field. In any true under- 
standing of the social function of biology, what goes on 
in the schoolroom is only for the sake of what can be 
accomplished in the life of the neighborhood. There- 
fore, it will be assumed that some room will be avail- 
able for the larger assemblies which are so necessary 
to this work, and the plan under discussion will provide 
only for the small class group, preferably not more than 
sixteen to twenty pupils. 

An informal grouping of tablet-armchairs at one 
end of the room (Figure 343) offers opportunity for class 
discussion or for individual work, and is helpful in stimu- 
lating the class and placing it ort a socialized basis. It 
also deposes the teacher from his undemocratic eminence 
behind a " lecture table." An adjoining storeroom 
makes for convenience in the preparation of demon- 
strations by students. An exhibit case (D) with glass 



shelves, and a set of drawers below, provides facilities 
for displaying class productions, individual collections, 
loan exhibits, etc. A bookcase (G) brings reference 
material within immediate reach of the class. Drawers 
(F) underneath the blackboard supply facilities for 
storage of charts, maps, picture collections, and similar 
material. 

Storerooms. — ■ The storeroom, opening to the right 
of this blackboard space, is provided with gas, and water, 
and storage cabinets of the type " C " used in the 
general science laboratory. While the storeroom is 
rather small (i2'Xi5')> so much of the material ordinarily 
kept in a storeroom is provided for in the main laboratory 
that this amount of space should be adequate for all 
material that is really needed for class work. Store- 
rooms so readily become junk yards, that this limita- 
tion in size sufficiently strict is desirable to prevent 
accumulation of any material not in good repair and 
frequent use. 

In addition to the storerooms belonging to each lab- 
oratory, the science department should have a " science 
warehouse " or storage room where reserve supplies 
and material infrequently used could be kept. Such a 
storage room could be in the basement or attic, though 
it is more convenient if on the same floor with the 
laboratories. Experience has demonstrated the advan- 
tages of such a place. When the greater part of the 
experimental work of a class is turned over to the class 
itself, free access of students to the laboratory store- 
room follows. It has to be established that basic labora- 
tory supplies are primarily to be used, not kept ; and 
should be so stored as to be both safe and accessible, if 
possible, but certainly accessible. But while a modern 
science class has less and less need for elaborate and 
expensive apparatus, too good for anyone but the teacher 
to handle, there still remains an apparently irreducible 
minimum of instruments of precision, models and special 
pieces occasionally necessary, which cannot be left to 
the unsupervised use of adolescents, who are constitu- 
tionally careless however good their intentions. Also, 
there should be safely stored a surplus stock of basic 
supplies, upon which the department draws as needed. 

The Menagerie. — ■ Any real biology class enjoys 
working with living material, and with the slightest 
encouragement will bring it in quantity. Such material 
should be available for class study first, and then housed 
on the school grounds for further enjoyment and work. 
This calls for two kinds of provision : first, a " me- 
nagerie " within the classroom, and second, an" out-door 
laboratory." The " menagerie or live-table " should 
be so placed as to permit of free observation. It should 
receive only north light and not too much of that ; 
enough for growing ferns is a rough criterion. It should 



THE GENERAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGIC At LABORATORIES 



395 




Fig. 347. — Physiology Laboratory, Grover 
not be placed near radiators. No animal can be expected 
to live under cramped and noisy limitations very long, 
but they can be kept long enough to gratify the curiosity 
concerning them and to raise a number of questions 
to be more fully answered by later painstaking study 
under the conditions of the outdoor laboratory. The 
live-table is of the same general construction as that 
described in connection with the general science labora- 
tory, but should be somewhat larger. 

The Microscope. — The storage and distribution of 
microscopes is a problem upon whose correct solution 
a good deal depends. The requirements of a good 
storage place are (1) freedom from dust and dampness, 
(2) provision for keeping each microscope separate 
from its neighbors, to avoid injury to fine adjustments 
and lenses, and (3) such an arrangement as will obviate 
as far as possible the danger of knocking the microscope 
against anything as it is returned to its place. A 
microscope is heavy, and a blow or a fall usually necessi- 
tates an expensive trip to the factory for repairs and 
readjustments. The detail of the case " H " shows a 
design which meets these requirements. Separate com- 
partments with glass doors, within a large cabinet, guard 
against dust and moisture, and prevent one microscope 
jamming another. The case has been kept low enough 
so that the top shelves are within easy reach of young 
people. One tier of compartments has been made wide 



Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 
enough to accommodate the binocular type of micro- 
scopes, a few of which should be found in every well- 
equipped laboratory. It is not wise to extend the com- 
partments to the floor, as it has been found that handling 
the microscopes at this low level is conducive to bumping 
and jarring of instruments. There is special danger of 
jamming the draw tube down into the stage as the micro- 
scope is withdrawn from the compartment near the 
floor. Therefore it has been found desirable to utilize 
the space below a convenient level — about 3' from floor 
— for a series of small drawers in which microscope 
accessories, collections of slides, tools, and materials 
may conveniently be stored. 

The function of the microscope in biological teaching 
has become less formal and more incidental, less an end 
in itself and more a means to better vision. To fulfill 
this purpose, it is essential that the instruments be 
readily available to individuals, even if the class as a 
whole has not been directed to use them. A system 
that has been used with a good deal of success, indicated 
on the plan of the biological laboratory (Figure 343), 
consists in placing small two-microscope cases between 
the windows near the tables " A " and " B." These 
cases are of the type " H " described above, and contain 
also a small drawer for accessories. It is found that a 
few of these readily accessible instruments greatly stimu- 
late the use of the microscope, and help to develop in the 



396 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



exceptionally good student with a definite scientific 
bent, a real mastery of the instrument. The tables "A " 
need no further description than can be obtained from 
the detailed drawings (Figure 342), table "A." No 
drawers or lockers have been shown under the students' 
tables, as these will vary with local conditions and 
methods of conducting the laboratory. At the rear of 
the room are placed two fume-hoods (E) with sinks and 
gas connections. Between these is a cabinet for storage 
of the projection apparatus and its accessories. 

Bacteriology. — In all modern work in high school 
biology the emphasis on civic interests has brought 
forward very prominently the subject of bacteriology. 
For any intelligent comprehension of bacteria and their 
ways of living, actual individual experimentation is 
indispensable, and facilities for this must be provided 
in the laboratory. Sterilizing may be carried on in 
Arnold steam sterilizers and pressure cookers, but to 
insure the growth of the organisms an incubator (I in 
Figure 341) must be available. This should be of the 
electric type, and should be placed in a sheltered recess, 
easily accessible to the class. 

The Outdoor Laboratory. — The " outdoor labora- 
tory " (Figure 345) is an indispensable adjunct to the 
equipment necessary for a satisfactory study of biology 
in secondary schools. Field trips, excursions, home 
projects, while highly desirable and very useful, cannot 
take the place of proper outdoor provision on the school 
grounds for practical biological work. In cold climates 
a greenhouse is a necessity, and even in California it is a 
decided advantage. This " outdoor laboratory " has 
been designed to meet the universal human interest in 
living, growing things, and to provide simple facilities 
for the wealth of experimental work which classes if 
given this opportunity will suggest and perform. It 
is of far greater usefulness and importance than any 
indoor laboratory, and where both cannot be afforded, 
provision should certainly be made for the outdoor one 
first. There might be almost indefinite extension of the 
plan, but there should be no reduction below the mini- 
mum here shown. 

The conservatory, the tool-houses, and the work- 
benches need no further description than the plans afford. 
The experimental plots should have some growing trees 
and shrubs, which will become more and more an asset 
with time. Hardy berry vines, such as blackberry, 
loganberry, etc., and shrubs, such as currant, gooseberry, 
and ornamental shrubs suited to the locality, should be 
planted around the border of the plots. These will 
furnish excellent material for practice in plant propaga- 



tion and opportunity for fighting of pests. Toward the 
far end of the laboratory, shrubbery should be massed 
to make a protected corner for the pool, the rabbit 
hutches, and the aviary. The pool should be large 
enough to support a considerable variety of aquatic 
life, and if nothing else in the whole plot can be secured, 
the pool by all means should be built and maintained. 
It is a world in little for the biologist, never the same two 
months or even weeks in succession, an inexhaustible 
source of fascinating material. 

The aviary should be octagonal in form, four of its 
sides and the roof being built solid to protect the birds 
from penetrating winds and weather, and the other four 
sides of sunny exposure should be covered with half- 
inch mesh galvanized poultry wire. The floor must be 
made rat-proof. A shrub or small tree growing within 
its walls is a very desirable addition. Drinking foun- 
tains, feeding troughs, and nesting boxes, all furnish 
opportunity for student construction. Rabbit hutches, 
which may be used for other small rodents, also, may well 
be placed in this sheltered part of the plot ; in cold 
climates they will need to be provided with warm 
quarters. 

Around the pool and near the aviary, concrete benches 
will provide a place for embryo naturalists to loaf. The 
entire " outdoor laboratory " should be surrounded 
by a dog-proof and boy-proof fence, with a gate that 
can be securely locked. It would be desirable, where 
feasible, to have the conservatory adjoin the biological 
laboratory, opening out from it. 

In schools where agriculture is taught extensively, 
a school farm should be available, and cooperative use 
of it by the departments of agriculture and biology will 
be of mutual benefit. Where only the minimum essen- 
tials of agriculture are dealt with, the " outdoor labora- 
tory " could be used by the two sets of classes and to 
the advantage of both. Such a plot as this has great 
value in making concrete the suggestions of the class- 
room work, and affords an opportunity for neighborhood 
demonstration of school work. 

It will be found that no investment a community 
can make will yield better returns than the provision 
of ample and modern educational facilities. It costs 
more to teach by means of laboratories and shops than 
from books, but it is worth more. Such teaching under 
the best conditions pays dividends of health, initiative, 
and resourcefulness, of hands trained to execute the 
fertile conceptions of the trained minds ; it leads the 
school out into the community, and draws the com- 
munity into the school. 



CHAPTER XX 
COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 

By Reginald R. Stuart, Principal Oakland Technical Continuation High School, Oakland, California 

Functions. Educational Experimental Laboratories. Relation to the School in General. Location in Plant. Organization of 
Department. Heads of Department, Duties, etc. First Floor Plan. Department Offices. Filing System. Psychological Tests. 
Placement Bureau. Keys. Auxiliary Telephone Switchboard. School Bank, Functions. School Bank, Organization and Equip- 
ment. School Store. Supplies. Advertising and Salesmanship. Continuation Courses. General and Specialty Salesmanship. 
Model Shop Window. Junior Chamber of Commerce. Office Training. Job Records. Student Secretaries. Principals' Secre- 
taries. Bookkeeping. Farm Accounting. Household Accounts. Office Practice. Bookkeeping Desks. Maximum Use of 
the Plant. Continuation School. Evening School. Typing. Typing Desk. St. Louis Typing Room. Typewriters, Care 
and Repairs. Calculating Appliances. Second Floor Plan. Teachers' Offices. Stenotypy, Radio, etc. Typewriters, Selec- 
tion. Commercial Geography. Laboratory Material. Filing Equipment. Commercial Exhibits. Recitation Rooms. Modifi- 
cations of Plan. Standardized Plan, New York City. 



Functions. — The primary functions of the commer- 
cial department of the high school are to offer specific 
training for stenographers, bookkeepers, store workers, 
and clerical assistants ; to afford a fundamental training 
in such drill subjects as penmanship, rapid calculation, 
and business forms that will meet the needs of the 
student in his capacity as an average citizen; and to 
be most essential to the man or woman who is to play 
any important part in the reconstruction and post- 
bellum periods. 

Aside from these primary functions which the commer- 
cial department fulfills, no institution can neglect or 
ignore the many secondary possibilities which may 
accrue from a progressive business department. Among 
others may be mentioned the following : stenographic 
assistance for both administrative officers and instructors, 
valuable help in dealing with the large number of student 
activities involving bookkeeping principles, and many 
other functions which will be considered later in this 
chapter. 

Educational Experimental Laboratories. — The com- 
mercial departments of the past have been experimental 
laboratories, to a considerable extent, in which educa- 
tional ideals have been practically tried out. A number 
of accepted and acceptable educational theories have 
been developed and proved in the commercial depart- 
ments of the country. This reason should influence 
the administrative officers both in the selection of the 
right type of director for this department and the 
arrangement of classrooms and equipment. 

The war has forever changed the position of the schools 
in this country. Whether we will it or not, the schools 



must now play a more positive and important part in 
the immediate life of the community in which they are 
located. Probably no other department offers as great 
an opportunity by being so closely linked up with the 
community life as does the commercial. This again 
should influence both the personnel and the architecture 
of the department. 

The plan outlined is for a commercial department 
in a high school having a registration of approximately 
2500 students. A well-developed department in a 
school of this size will require not fewer than 15 instruc- 
tors. Appropriate modifications of the plan are given 
for a school with an enrollment of 1200 with 8 commer- 
cial instructors and for a school of approximately 300 
with a single business teacher. These types will repre- 
sent in a fairly accurate manner equitable and propor- 
tionate distribution of students in the commercial work. 

Relation to the School in General. — In the past, it 
was customary to place the commercial department 
at the very outskirts of the school plant. In many 
schools, commercial departments are still housed in 
temporary buildings, in basements, or in almost any 
place not desired by some other department of the 
school. It is not uncommon to find the various class- 
rooms for business subjects scattered in almost as many 
parts of the plant as there are classes. This unfortunate 
condition is due, no doubt, to the rather recent develop- 
ment of commercial work in the high schools and to the 
further fact that administrative officers have not always 
been quick to appreciate the benefits which might accrue 
to the entire institution by having this department more 
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Location in Plant. — If possible, the commercial 
department should be located very near the center 
of the plant and in close connection with the adminis- 
trative offices. This arrangement will make it possible 
for the commercial department to supplement the 
regular clerical help in the administrative offices and 
permit of the development of a workable plan to handle 
the stenographic and clerical work for department heads 
and teachers of the entire school. In addition to these 
advantages, it will be found that many features of the 
modern high school which are of a quasi-administrative 
nature, such as the school bank, the bookstore, student 
body accounts, junior chamber of commerce, and the 
like, wiU function more efficiently as an integral part of 
this department, and should be of necessity centrally 
located. 

Organization of Department. — ■ An efficient organiza- 
tion for a department of 15 teachers calls for a depart- 
ment head, two assistant heads, and 12 regular instruc- 
tors. The head of the department should have at least 
one-half of his time available for supervision work in the 
department and for promotion and investigation work 
in the community. The assistants should carry full 
time schedules. They should be assigned, however, 
to organize and supervise the office training work and the 
various activities for which this department is held 
responsible. 

Heads of Departments. Duties, etc. — The depart- 
ment head should be held responsible for the general 
organization of the department and for specific super- 
vision of all subjects of a general commercial nature, 
such as industrial geography, commercial law, foreign 
and domestic trade, and the like. It is quite advisable, 
also, for the department head to be in direct charge of 
the placement bureau of the school. One assistant 
should be responsible for the supervision of all work 
which enters into the training of secretarial assistants, 
while the other will be in charge of all work leading to 
bookkeeping and accounting positions. After the office 
training work and the school activities are well organized, 
each assistant will find considerable time available which 
may be used in the supervision of his respective division. 

Of course, in certain high schools, it may be found 
advisable to alter the assignment of duties of the depart- 
ment head and his assistants. The department head 
may be much better fitted to direct and supervise 
stenographic training, or the work embraced in the 
bookkeeping division, than the more general work out- 
lined in the preceding paragraph. This will often happen 
in schools in which the commercial department has been 
established for some time and was organized primarily 
as a competing feature with the local business college. 
It is well to emphasize the importance, nevertheless, 



that the department head should be a man of vision, 
alive to the needs of his community, and in perfect 
harmony with the rather urgent forces which are, at 
present, altering our school system. 

To secure maximum results, no department head 
should fail to recognize the desirability of organizing 
the department in such a manner that the development 
of initiative on the part of the teachers will be encouraged. 
In other words, the wise director will endeavor to fore- 
stall such criticism as is sometimes made of him by his 
teachers : 

" Only ideas which originate from headquarters are 
valuable." ^IZl/! 

"It is simply my duty to follow directions and say 
nothing." mML^. 

So many activities may be correlated with this depart- 
ment that the tactful director will have little difficulty 
in assigning special problems to each instructor in his 
corps. In some instances this feature is likely somewhat 
to affect the architectural arrangement, in others require 
additional equipment, and in still other cases call for 
alterations in the daily program. Its advantage, how- 
ever, in keeping up the esprit de corps is well worth the 
additional effort. 

Figures 348 and 349 are floor plans showing a desirable 
arrangement in the commercial department for a large 
high school of 2000 or more students. 

First Floor Plan. — Following out the ideas already out- 
lined, the first floor plan (see Figure 348) should include 
the offices of the department head and his assistants, 
closely connected with the office training and student 
activities headquarters, the advertising and salesmanship 
classroom, two typing rooms, two bookkeeping rooms, 
and a machine calculating room. The plan calls for a 
rather extensive delegation of student body activities 
to this department, but by no means a complete assign- 
ment. The relative personnel of the commercial depart- 
ment as compared with other departments of the school 
should be the governing factor in making the alignment 
of activities by the principal. It is believed, however, 
that the plan submitted is workable for the average 
high school. 

Department Offices. Filing System. Psychological 
Tests. — ■ The office of the head of the department is 
located near the main entrance of the building, and a 
side door connects it with the advertising and salesman- 
ship room. It is assumed that since advertising and 
salesmanship are subjects of more recent adoption than 
the other technical work, the department head will 
find it desirable to supervise these classes personally. 
This office will be the headquarters for all records 
collected from time to time by the department head and 
his assistants and should be provided with ample filing 



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COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 



401 



facilities. Probably no other department in the school 
affords a better field for the inauguration of psychological 
testing than does the commercial. The director of 
experimental psychology will, therefore, welcome an 
opportunity to cooperate with the commercial teachers 
in initiating this important work in the school. It is 
needless to say, however, that such records, while avail- 
able for the various teachers, should never be open for 
the inspection of students. Incidentally, it would seem 
that the ideal place to keep such records for convenience 
and availability, should be in the offices of the various 
heads of departments rather than in the main adminis- 
trative offices of the school. 

Placement Bureau. — As Director of the Placement 
Bureau, the department head should have outside 
listed telephone connections, as well as connections with 
the local telephone exchange of the school. Other 
equipment which should be found in this office in- 
cludes two flat-top desks, typewriter and stand, a dic- 
tating machine, an adding machine, and a half-dozen 
chairs. 

Keys. — Aside from the outside telephone, the equip- 
ment of the offices for the assistant heads will be approxi- 
mately the same as for the department head. In the 
office of the assistant head for accounting, the filing room 
gives place to a key room in which keys for every locker 
and room throughout the building are kept. It will 
usually be found advantageous to have keys for labora- 
tories or students' desks handled by the heads of the 
respective departments. Whether keys are kept in the 
main administrative offices or in the commercial 
department, will depend upon two factors : first, the 
amount of clerical help maintained in the administra- 
tive department, and second, the policy of the school 
authorities regarding the use of student help for such 
activities. High school principals recognize that not 
one school in a hundred has provided for any plan to 
handle keys and locker deposits in a safe and satisfactory 
way. With this plan, however, the responsibility is 
certain. No one comes in contact with the keys except 
the assistant head, and the advanced student who is 
delegated to handle this particular problem. 

Auxiliary Telephone Switchboard. — In the office 
of the assistant head for secretarial training, this 
space is used to house an auxiliary telephone switch- 
board which may take over the entire telephone system 
of the building by special arrangement with the main 
office. Business men offer more criticisms of high 
school students because of lack of training in the proper 
use of the telephone than in almost any other single 
thing. This arrangement does not throw the entire 
responsibility of maintaining the exchange continuously 
on the department, but makes it possible to use this 



convenience and equipment as long as real educational 
training may be developed. 

School Bank. Functions. — The functions of the 
school bank are three-fold. It should be the organiza- 
tion whose duty it is to carry on a definite campaign of 
thrift and saving among the students. It should become 
the financial center of the school and as such should 
handle ticket sales for all entertainments, student body 
fees, etc. It should offer an invaluable office training 
for a limited number of accounting students who are 
preparing for positions in banking institutions. 

School Bank. Organization and Equipment. — 
Statutes in many of the states limit the activities of 
school banks to savings accounts. In states where 
this restriction is not placed on its activities, a fourth 
function should be the commercial or checking depart- 
ment, which will be generally patronized by both teachers 
and students. The school bank should ' always be 
authorized by the proper state officials, as well as by 
the local school authorities. It is almost always 
affiliated with one of the larger banking institutions 
of the city, and the close relations which are thus formed 
will work to a better mutual understanding of the prob- 
lems of both school and bank. 

Two entrances to the lobby of the bank are provided. 
This plan will make the handling of a large number of 
students, as e.g., the payment of student body dues, a 
relatively simple problem by routing them in one door 
and out the other. Ample writing space should be pro- 
vided in the lobby. An iron grill or glass partition 
isolates the section reserved for the bank officials. The 
plan provides for an entrance to this space through 
the office of the assistant head who is in direct charge 
of this activity. 

Equipment should include counter space with cash 
drawers and cabinets for supplies underneath, a Burroughs 
adding machine, typewriter, a flat-top desk, check pro- 
tector, and a filing unit for signature, ledger, and state- 
ment cards. 

School Store. Supplies. — As a matter of conven- 
ience and economy, most schools will find it desirable 
to handle the books and supplies required by students. 
Uniform prices and standardized supplies can be assured 
in this way with little difficulty. By a careful arrange- 
ment of the program it will not be found necessary to 
keep the store open for more than two periods . daily 
after the first week of the term. The school store should 
handle all stationery supplies furnished by the board 
of education for departments and teachers of the 
school as well. Such supplies should be delivered on 
requisitions only. It will prove a relatively simple 
problem for the principal or department head to deter- 
mine exactly what has been the disposition of supplies at 



402 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the end of the school year. The school store will, therefore, 
not only make standardization of prices and materials 
feasible for the students, but furnish, as well, the data 
which may be used in formulating rules to govern a 
reasonable use of supplies by the teachers. 

The equipment should include a counter with cabinets 
underneath, together with shelving on three sides of the 
room. A desk and filing case should be located in the 
center of the room. A cash register should be used to 
record all sales. 

It may be thought that the room is too small to handle 
supplies for a school of 2500 students. However, if the 
room is used merely as the distributing point for supplies 
and a storeroom for additional material kept in the 
basement, it will be found entirely satisfactory. 

Advertising and Salesmanship. Continuation Courses. 
— The desirability of offering strong courses in adver- 
tising and salesmanship can be readily appreciated when 
it is realized that many more students will follow 
some line of selling than will go into stenographic or 
bookkeeping positions. Heretofore, little attention has 
been given these important subjects in the high school. 
It is probably true that the commercial department 
will always be concerned more with secretarial training 
than with selling. This is true because many sales- 
people enter this work from the grade schools rather 
than from the high school. Nevertheless, the tendency 
of modern education is to keep the boy and girl at their 
studies as long as possible. Consequently, school 
systems are extending their training to include work 
which has been given, heretofore, chiefly in the trade 
itself. If the school building is located near the business 
district — particularly the retail section — a plan of co- 
operation usually can be worked out with department 
store managers for the loan of material for the study 
of textiles and window dressing ; for the training of em- 
ployees in continuation classes on the employers' time ; 
and for a systematic placement and follow-up system 
of all students- who enter this work. 



Oakland Technical Continuation High School 
Job No. 264 Date, Jan. 10, igig 

Miss (A) 



Please furnish stenographic assistance as follows : 



Multigraph copies as per sample 

25 Line composition 

500 Sheets medium bond 

Printing 

Cost of material, $2.00. Labor, $4.00. Total 



Teacher Mr. (B), Department English. 



Fig 350. — Order Blank for Stenographic Book. 



General and Specialty Salesmanship. — Aside from 
this course in retail selling, which may be labeled " de- 
partment store selling," " merchandizing," or some 
other appropriate term, a class in business psychology, 
which may be called, " general and specialty salesman- 
ship," should be offered as a free elective. This work 
will prove most beneficial as a part of any student's 
general training. A suggestion should be offered, per- 
haps, that a rather full outline of this course ought 
to be presented to the school authorities for indorse- 
ment, in order that it may not be built on selling tricks 
and questionable business practices. 

Model Shop Window. — The room is located next 
to the head of the department in order that this work 
may receive his personal supervision. A platform 
should be placed at the front of the room for staging 
demonstration sales. A panel of burlap should extend 
around the room, or some other provision be made for 
the suitable display of typical advertising material. A 
model shop window should be constructed in the wall 
next to the corridor. The class in window dressing 
will find little difficulty in securing the cooperation of 
merchants in the vicinity in arranging typical displays, 
while in the case of " drives " for the Red Cross, or other 
charitable or patriotic projects, most appropriate use 
can be made of the window in staging a novel and 
effective appeal to the entire student body. The 
location of this room near the center of the plant will 
greatly enhance its advertising value. Aside from the 
occasional use which can be made of the window to 
aid in promoting school activities, its location on the . 
main corridor is fortunate, because the approval or 
lack of approval of displays by the students who pass 
the window offers a most desirable incentive to the class 
in window dressing. 

Junior Chamber of Commerce. — This room may be 
used quite appropriately by the junior chamber of com- 
merce as its official headquarters. In fact, this organiza- 
tion should be solicited to provide material for displays 
covering the products of the section. 

Office Training. — Office training is here intended to 
include the opportunities afforded the student to do 
actual stenographic or secretarial work. This is a most 
important part of his education and provision should be 
made accordingly. Aside from the advantages which 
the student himself derives, office training affords an 
excellent opportunity to aid materially almost every 
department and teacher of the entire school. In fact, 
it is obvious that every teacher in the modern high 
school has considerable stenographic work which must 
be done. He must either do it himself or have steno- 
graphic assistance at his disposal. Economy and effi- 
ciency should show the fallacy of requiring teachers to 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 351. — Bookkeeping Desks. 



do any considerable amount of clerical work themselves. 
The director for secretarial training should develop 
a course which while being of practical assistance to the 
school in general, is truly progressive and educational 
for the students themselves. 

Job Records. Student Secretaries. — All work 
handled by -office training students must be approved 
by the instructors and a definite record kept, which shows 
the nature, amount, and commercial value of each job, 
the name of the party for whom the work was done, 
and the estimated cost of materials used. Figure 350 
shows a satisfactory job card. By direction of the 
instructor, student secretaries may be appointed to 
assist teachers or school officials when the work warrants 
it. The work of student secretaries must be carefully 
supervised in order that it may be of real educational 
value. The instructor may find it advisable to outline 
briefly the work which should be expected of these 
students. 

A plan which has worked satisfactorily in a number 
of schools is to install dictating machines in various parts 



of the school plant for use of teachers and officials. The 
" filled " records are sent to the office training room for 
transcription. This plan permits of stenographic assist- 
ance at all hours of the day or night. 

Principals' Secretaries. — Advanced stenographic 
students from the various high schools of Oakland, Cali- 
fornia, are appointed by the superintendent of schools 
to positions as principals' secretaries in the larger grade 
schools of the city. These students receive both school 
credit and a nominal compensation for their services. 

The room should be equipped with a power mimeo- 
graph, multigraph, addressograph, dictaphones, and 
ample filing cases. The location of the telephone 
exchange in the adjoining room makes this switchboard 
a part of the office training equipment. 

Bookkeeping. Farm Accounting. Household 
Accounts. — ■ Bookkeeping should always form an im- 
portant part of the commercial training in any high school. 
The location of the school should determine to a large 
extent the particular applications of bookkeeping prin- 
ciples which will be made in the more advanced work. In 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. John J. Bono 

Fig. 352. — Bookkeeping Department, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



other words, farm bookkeeping should form a con- 
siderable part of the course in rural high schools. In the 
same way, departments enrolling a large number of 
' girls should offer applications of the principles of book- 
keeping in household accounts. Nothing develops 
interest and enthusiasm as rapidly as a realization that 
the school work is directly applicable to the problems 
of life. It should be perfectly obvious that such direct 
applications to everyday problems will not only interest 
the students, but will create a favorable attitude of 
cooperation on the part of the parents as well. 

Bookkeeping. Office Practice. — No provision has been 
made for special office practice as developed -by a number 
of authors of bookkeeping texts. It is believed that the 
management of the student activities outlined will 
prove an even more valuable training than the made- 
to-order work to which reference is made. If, however, 
no arrangement is made to assign student activities 
to the commercial department, then it should prove 
most valuable to have provision made for this type of 
office practice. 



Bookkeeping Desks. — The equipment should include 
the regular teacher's desk, forty-five students' desks, 
ample blackboard space, etc. The bookkeeping desk 
suggested (see Figure 351) offers sufficient space for 
books and forms, provides for two inkwells, and affords 
drawer accommodations for the temporary disposal 
of superfluous books and supplies not needed in this 
particular recitation. The question may be raised, 
should provision be made for the accommodation of 
bookkeeping outfits of the students in the desk itself. In 
determining the relative value of purchasing a desk 
with ample drawer space to accommodate all the students 
who may use the desk during the day (see Figure 352), 
the following factors should enter into the decision : 

1. The maximum use to which the plant will be 
placed. 

2. The relative floor space of the two desks. 

3. The relative cost of the desks. 

4. The relative convenience to the student in being 
able to store his supplies in the desk or being obliged to 
carry supplies with him to and from his locker. 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 



405 



Maximum Use of the Plant. Continuation School. 
Evening School. — At the present time, many schools 
are maintaining classes for from 10 to 12 hours daily, 
while not a few operate for longer periods. Oakland, 
California, Technical High School opens for recitation 
in the regular day school at 7 : 10 a.m. Classes con- 
tinue until 4 p.m. However, at 2 : 30 the continution 
school opens a large number of adult classes in rooms* 
not required by the day school for the remainder of the 
afternoon. These classes regularly continue until 4 : 40. 
At 5 o'clock, supper classes begin which extend to the 
opening of the evening school at 7 : 15. While a majority 
of the evening school classes close at 9 : 30, a number 
continue until 10 : 30. In other words, this school 
operates classes for more than 15 of the 24 hours. For 
12 hours daily it operates to its capacity. In such a 
school, provision must be made to handle at least 14 
forty-minute periods per day. Estimating 2 periods 
daily for each bookkeeping student, accommodation 
must be made for at least 7 students per desk. 

Figure 352 shows a desk of seven drawers, one drawer of 
which, if not required as a locker, may be used to store 
temporarily the extra books of the student while reciting. 
This desk requires 50 per cent more floor space than the 
first desk shown. With the first desk, it will be easily 
possible to seat 45 students in the bookkeeping room. 
With the second desk, the room will be crowded for 
more than 30 students. 

It is believed that the live teacher in this subject can 
readily organize his work to handle the forty-five students 
assigned to each room. 

The first cost of the larger desk is nearly 50 per cent 
higher than the one- recommended, and the operating 
cost per pupil is increased accordingly. 

Finally, it is believed that ample space is provided 
in the regular students' lockers to accommodate all 
bookkeeping outfits and supplies, and that the carrying 
of such material to and from lockers will not prove unduly 
burdensome. 

Extreme care should be exercised in locating the 
bookkeeping rooms in a most favorable position with 
reference to the light. The great amount of writing 
and ruling required, in this subject demands ample and 
well regulated lighting facilities. The window glass 
area should be equivalent to not less than 20 per cent 
of the floor area of the room. 

Typing. — The writer judges no thesis is necessary 
to convince- school men of the importance of typing for 
commercial students, and even of the great desirability 
of throwing the subject open as a free elective to students 
of the entire school. The world's business to-day speaks 
in terms of typewritten characters. Every man and 
woman in business or profession uses the typewriter. 



The only question involved is whether the expenditure 
of an hour a day for a year is too great an outlay for 
the time and energy saved in after life. Without ques- 
tion every high school boy and girl should operate the 
typewriter better than " indifferently well." 

If one side of the plant fronts on a noisy street, it 
would be well to locate the typing rooms there, since 
outside disturbances will cause less inconvenience in 
this work than for, say, classes in shorthand. 

Typing Desks. — Two different desks are again shown. 
(Figures 353 and 354.) Exactly the same problem is in- 
volved as in the bookkeeping desk. There is no ques- 




F IG - 353- — Typewriter Desk. 

tion that the smaller desk is more economical. If 
the smaller desk is selected, additional desk keys are not 
required, and the amount of details is correspondingly 
lessened. Typewriter desks should have three drawers 
which may be used for covers, cleaning tools, and cloths. 
Typewriter companies advise against the bolting of 
machines to the desks. The ideal arrangement permits 
of the removal of the machine for adjustment or for 
cleaning the desk. 

St. Louis Typing Room. — Figure 355 is a view in the 
typing room of the Grover Cleveland High School, St. 
Louis, Mo. A special type of drop-head desk is used. 
It is doubtful if the additional expense of this desk is 
really justified. 



406 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 354. — Typing Room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



Mr. John J. Donovan, ArcMtect. 



Typewriters, Care and Repair. — A word should be 
said about the extreme wear and tear to which a type- 
writer in the modern large school is subjected. With 
from four to ten different individuals using it daily, 
practically all of whom are novices, the strain on the 
machine, even under careful supervision, is many times 
what it would be in the average office. It is advisable 
to have a repair man visit the department regularly to 
handle difficulties which are beyond the average student. 
It sometimes happens that a boy in the industrial depart- 
ment may be assigned to handle the repair work as a 
definite part of his shop course. Unless closely super- 
vised it is doubtful if this plan is advisable. 

Calculating Appliances. — Quite recently the call 
for calculating and bookkeeping machine operators 
has become so great that it seems probable that all 
large schools in the future will offer instruction on these 
machines. In the plan shown, a medium sized room, 
next to the bookkeeping classes, is left for this work. 
Classes in advanced bookkeeping will find machines 
conveniently located for their use. It will be advisable 
to have only a limited number of students become fa- 



miliar with the operation of the bookkeeping machines. 
A survey should be made of business houses in the com- 
munity to determine the probable demand for trained 
operators. Regular class work should be given on the 
comptometers and other calculating machines. 

Equipment in the calculating appliance room should 
include comptometers, non-listing Burroughs, an Elliott- 
Fisher Bookkeeping Machine, a Burroughs Statement 
Machine, Marchant Calculators, and other types now 
in common commercial usage. Where no special pedes- 
tal is furnished with the machine, as in the case of the 
Elliott-Fisher and the Burroughs Statement machine, the 
desk used for typing is recommended. 

Second Floor Plan. — The second floor plan (see 
Figure 349), of the Commercial Department includes: 
offices for men and women teachers, two small-sized 
rooms which may be used for radio, Morse telegraphy, 
stenotypy, or for other small or experimental classes, 
five recitation rooms, two typing rooms and a commercial 
geography room. Built-in commercial exhibit cases 
are arranged throughout the corridors as in the first 
floor plan. Folding glass doors are located between the 



COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 355. — Typing Room, G: 



Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



two small rooms and the two typing rooms. This 
arrangement makes it possible to utilize the small rooms 
for standard sized classes if necessary. It also makes it 
possible for one teacher to supervise both typing rooms 
during practice typing period . 

Teachers' Offices. — The assignment of these offices 
will depend upon the relative number of men and women 
instructors in the department. Under ideal conditions, 
the number should be about equal. A survey of a 
large number of departments, however, shows that 
there are approximately 60 women instructors to every 
40 men instructors of commercial subjects. If the plant 
is used to its maximum capacity, it becomes absolutely 
impossible for the teacher to meet pupils in her class- 
room at the close of the recitation. Some other place 
must be provided for this purpose. An office with a 
sufficient number of desks to accommodate the teachers 
will prove reasonably satisfactory. The trend in the 
educational world seems to lead toward a longer school 
day in the school plant itself. The actual teaching time 
may not be extended, but a number of office periods will 
be provided to afford opportunity for the counseling of stu- 
dents by class advisors. These periods will be utilized also 



in completing the necessary laboratory and preparatory 
work incident to the development of a successful recita- 
tion. Necessary locker facilities are provided in each 
office. 

Stenotypy, Radio, etc. — If one of the functions of the 
commercial department is to provide an educational 
experiment ground, then provision must be made for 
satisfactory " laboratories " in which ideas may be 
thoroughly tested. If after sufficient trial, a project 
seems not adapted to meet the needs of a particular 
community, it can be readily discontinued and some 
other " possibility " tried out. The plan whereby these 
rooms may be converted into regular classrooms with 
little or no difficulty aside from the rearrangement of 
equipment, does not involve either a great expense or an 
economic risk. 

The arrangement in the typing rooms on the second 
floor is exactly the same as that of the first floor. 

Typewriters' Selection. — A word might be added 
regarding the selection of makes of typewriters and 
arrangement in the rooms. If possible a survey should 
be made of typical business institutions of the com- 
munity. The proportion of typewriters purchased 



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should be about the same as the survey shows in use 
in the community. The arrangement of machines 
in all typing rooms should be identical in order that 
classrooms may be interchangeable. 

Commercial Geography. — The geography of industry 
should be included in any well-balanced commercial 
course. Eventually this subject should develop for 
the student a set of principles which will assist him in 
judging the relative future possibilities of both indus- 
tries and communities. By this suggestion the writer 
does not have in mind the impossible proposition of 
turning out industrial experts or municipal planning 
specialists. He simply recognizes the fact that one of 
the most potent causes of failure is a poor selection 
for the location of a business. Failure may happen 
either because the business is not adapted to the com- 
munity in which it is located, or the community may be 
overstocked with that particular line. 

Laboratory Material. — If the course is a year in 
length, one half of the time should be spent in a study 
of local industries, while the other half should be given 
to a consideration of the world's commerce. Since text 
books can furnish but a small amount of the data re- 
quired for such a course, it will be absolutely important 
to secure a large amount of original material from the 
industries of the section, from the publicity organiza- 
tions, and from state, federal, or municipal authorities. 
It is recognized that some of the material furnished will 



be more or less colored by local prejudices. This point 
is rather in its favor, however, since the student in mak- 
ing his deductions must exercise judgment in the selec- 
tion of data which he will use. Most of the material 
is put out in an interesting and attractive form. The 
students themselves should be encouraged to collect 
the material. This again will have a tendency to link 
the schools up more closely with the business and 
industrial life of the community. 

A course in Foreign and Domestic Trade may be given 
to seniors or continuation school students in this same 
room. 

Filing Equipment. — If original material is to be 
collected, it must be classified and filed in such a manner 
as to make it available for constant use in the "classroom. 
Cabinets and filing cases should be provided for this 
purpose. Next to visiting a plant and actually seeing 
the various processes in the manufacture of raw material 
into the finished product, is to follow the same processes 
by means of appropriately selected lantern slides. Pro- 
vision should be made, therefore, for a balopticon, which 
handles both opaque projections and lantern slides. A 
curtain should be installed at the front of the room and 
the window casings constructed in such manner that 
the room may be easily darkened. Ordinary desks 
which will permit of map drawing should be installed. 

Commercial Exhibits. — Exhibits which show pro- 
cesses in the manufacture of industrial products should 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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be collected for study by the students in commercial 
geography. It will be found that no more fascinating 
assignment can be made to average high school students 
than to secure appropriate collections of such materials. 
Hundreds of excellent exhibits, such as silk, cotton, 
rubber, oil, and the like, may be readily secured from 
industrial concerns. The location of the commercial 
exhibit cases in the corridors makes all of these exhibits 
available for the entire school. 

Recitation Rooms. — The plan calls for five recita- 
tion rooms. Each room should be furnished with 35 
desks. In making the selection of desks it should be 
kept in mind that considerable writing will be required 
of the students using these rooms. Among other 
classes which will be assigned are the following : penman- 
ship, arithmetic, rapid calculation, business English, 
shorthand, commercial correspondence, and other sub- 
jects requiring no special equipment. It is assumed 
that the subjects named are so well recognized as form- 
ing a part of a symmetrical commercial course, that ' 
individual treatment is unnecessary. 

Modifications of Plan. — Figure 356 shows a modifica- 
tion of the plan suitable for a medium-sized high school 
with from 7 to 9 commercial teachers. The office of the 
department head is so placed that he can supervise the 
school activities. Approximately, one-half as much 
space is allowed for typing and bookkeeping as in the 
larger plan. Three recitation rooms should accommo- 



date work offered in advertising, salesmanship, com- 
mercial law, industrial geography, and other subjects 
requiring no special equipment. The distinctive features 
of the lafger plan are retained in this modified one. 
If the location of the school seems to warrant the ad- 
ditional expense, one of the recitation rooms may be 
especially arranged to handle advertising, salesmanship, 
and industrial geography. This may readily be done by 
combining the features of these two rooms as shown in 
the larger plan. 

Figure 357 is a modification for a one teacher depart- 
ment. The essential features here are to retain as many 
of the good points of the more complex arrangement as 
possible, and yet have all the department so planned 
that it may be easily supervised by one instructor. The 
two small offices permit of practical application of both 
the stenographic and bookkeeping office training. If it 
is planned to operate very small classes throughout 
the entire day, the typing room may be made smaller. 
All partitions both between the rooms and inclosing the 
offices should be made of glass. 

Standardized Plans, New York City. — Figure 358 
shows a plan for a small department in an elementary 
and intermediate school as worked out by Mr. C. B. J. 
Snyder, Architect for the New York City Board of 
Education. Folding glass doors between the rooms 
permit of the supervision of both classes by one instructor. 
The wardrobe takes the place of student's lockers. 



CHAPTER XXI 



THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 

By Ralph C. Sisson, B.S., M.A., Instructor in Drawing, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California 

The Drawing Department. 

Elementary and Intermediate Schools. — Freehand Drawing. Mechanical Drawing. The Danger of Beginning Too Early. 

The High School. — The Trend of High School Education. General Considerations. Light. Night Lighting. Wall Covering. 

The Freehand Department. — The Courses. The Equipment. 

The Mechanical Drawing Department. — The Courses. The Geometrical Drawing Room. The Trade Drawing Room. The 
Technical Drawing Room. 

Some Rooms in the High School. — Library, Lecture Room, and Study. Offices. Store and Blue Print Rooms. Dark Room. 
Summary. 



The Drawing Department. — Drawing is the one 
universal means of expression. An object may be 
variously labeled in the written or spoken language of 
different peoples, but the same object, properly drawn, 
finds recognition in any land. This is true, not only 
of pictorial drawing, but also of the working drawings 
which must precede the making of any article or the 
building of any structure. 

In this country, with its intense development of con- 
structive activities, the need for general instruction in 
the principles of drawing is becoming apparent. In 
the realm of fine art America is just beginning to find a 
place, and the rapidity of her development in that 
direction depends upon the educated appreciation of 
the people. Advertising has risen to a place of supreme 
importance in the business world. One of the most 
important elements in the advertising organization is 
commercial art, a field of endeavor that offers rich 
reward to those who enter it. It calls for a study of 
drawing, composition, and color in addition to methods 
of reproduction and psychology. To the practical- 
minded man, it represents a kind of art that pays. In 
the rush of manufacturing, into which this country is 
about to enter as a leading nation, mechanical engineers 
and draftsmen will be in great demand. It is these men 
who will design the machinery and products involved. 
The mechanic must have a knowledge of working draw- 
ings to enable him to lay out and perform his work 
properly. What is true of manufacturing is also true 
of building. Every artisan as well as every architect 
and engineer must be able to understand and work from 
drawings. Even the clients should have an understand- 
ing of drawing to enable them to know that they are 
getting what they want. 



Thus it is seen that almost no one escapes the need of 
a study of the principles of drawing. For this reason, 
it is most unfortunate that mechanical drawing should 
be the aristocrat in the curriculum of our public schools. 
The cost of good instruments is so great as to be beyond 
the means of many students, while the cheaper grades 
are apt to prove more of a handicap than a help. In 
spite of the difficulties, school ownership of instruments 
seems to be the only solution of the expense problem. If 
the schools are able and willing to supply shop tools 
and musical instruments, why not mechanical drawing 
equipment as well ? 

Two schemes have been tried with success. One 
requires a deposit covering the cost of the instruments. 
The student uses the set during the term, and upon 
returning it, receives his deposit minus deductions for 
breakage, etc. In the second scheme, the student signs 
for a set each day, returning it at the end of his period. 
A smaller deposit is required, as the instruments on no 
occasion leave the room. This scheme requires only 
one third to one quarter as many sets as the first, for 
each set may be used by a number of students. Again, 
the instruments will be kept in better condition and last 
longer because of the inspection at the end of each period. 
The disadvantages of the scheme are that a tool room 
for storage of instruments is necessary, and the instructor 
or a student attendant must be in charge at the beginning 
and end of each period to give out and check in sets of 
instruments. The student inspects the instruments he 
receives to see that they are in good condition, and the 
attendant inspects those returned. Of course, the time 
thus taken is lost from the drawing period, and six min- 
utes a day means a loss of ten hours in two hundred days 
for each student. Students who can afford it should 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



be encouraged to get their own instruments, but some 
provision should be made for those who are not so 
fortunate. 

Elementary and Intermediate Schools. Freehand 
Drawing. — The freehand drawing offered in the ele- 
mentary schools is of a very informal nature. In fact, 
the subject has been looked upon with favor because it 
offered an opportunity for relaxation from the strain of 
more formal academic subjects. The subject matter 
is chosen with the purpose of interesting the student. 
Principles of perspective developed in the drawing of 
cubes, cylinders,, and prisms would not hold the interest 
of young minds ; so furniture, model houses, etc., involv- 
ing the same principles, have been substituted. A high 
degree of accuracy cannot be expected from the younger 
students, and consequently the less exacting natural 
forms, such as flowers, find favor. All" children are fond 
of color and take delight in its use. This element of 
interest is recognized and used very extensively. 

Since the teaching of elementary school drawing is not 
very formal, special drawing rooms, while desirable, are 
not absolutely necessary. In fact, in the crowding that 
comes with the growth of every school, it is the tendency 
to convert all special rooms not working full time into 
classrooms. It is probably better to arrange a classroom 
so that it can be used for drawing, rather than to lay out 
a drawing room which, when the conversion comes, may 
be neither a good drawing room nor a satisfactory class- 
room. Such a classroom would answer all requirements 
for elementary drawing, including even the lighting, 
since very little study of light and shade is carried on. 

Mechanical Drawing. — Mechanical drawing in the 
elementary school has, very properly, been limited to 
pencil drawings, mostly of the simple pieces of furniture, 
etc., which are made in the manual training shops. This 
drawing is usually done under the supervision of the 
manual training instructor. The equipment necessary 
in addition to that of the manual training room consists 
simply of a small drawing board, T square, and triangles. 
The manual training tables serve nicely as drawing desks, 
and additional lockers are unnecessary. 

The Danger of Beginning Too Early. — There is a very 
natural tendency to reach back and offer drawing at 
the earliest possible time. This tendency is the result 
of the attempt to cover a maximum amount of ground 
in the period given for the education of the average 
student. The idea is certainly a praiseworthy one, but 
the educator's zeal in that direction should always be 
tempered by a realization of the danger of introducing 
a subject before the child has reached a maturity suffi- 
cient to deal with it. While the danger is present in 
both the freehand and mechanical drawing, it is more 
evident in the latter. The mechanical drawing is 



extremely popular with the students, and it is essential 
to any serious work in the shops. The result is that a 
subject formerly offered in the universities and in the 
fourth year of the high schools is now offered in the second 
year of the high schools, and some ambitious manual 
training teachers would introduce the same subject in the 
seventh and eighth grades of the grammar school. It is 
obvious that a grammar school student cannot master 
the principles of geometry necessary in geometrical draw- 
ing. Again, the adolescent child is growing rapidly, and 
his muscular action is almost certain to be erratic ; work 
with instruments requiring precision and the use of ink 
would prove to be discouraging and useless. The time 
would be wasted, and standards which would be difficult 
to raise materially later, would be established. The stu- 
dent is not ready for geometrical drawing with ink until his 
second year in high school. Until that time, his drawing 
should be with pencil and should consist of the simple 
working designs used in his shop work. 

The High School. The Trend of High School Educa- 
tion. — The tendency in recent years has been strongly 
in the direction of vocational education. The purely 
academic school of yesterday is felt to cover only a 
portion of the field of secondary education ; in conse- 
quence technical, vocational, and trade schools and 
departments are being organized and developed to cover 
the remainder. The combination of the vocational or 
technical school with the academic in one institution 
should prove one of the greatest forces conceivable 
working toward a true democracy. There are a great 
many difficulties to be met with, and it is probably to 
the smaller communities where the single institution is 
absolutely necessary that we must look for the successful 
solution of this problem. 

Among the departments most directly affected by this 
new development is the drawing department. But a 
few short years ago, the drawing department of the- 
largest high school consisted of only one or two free- 
hand and mechanical drawing rooms. Generally the 
freehand teachers taught sewing, and the mechanical 
drawing teacher filled out his program with manual 
training, mathematics or science. To-day, in the free- 
hand department, courses are offered in commercial art, 
show-card writing, art metal work, pottery making, 
bookbinding, interior decoration, costume design, etc. 
The student completing any of these courses has no 
difficulty in finding permanent or part time employment 
with good pay in the local business houses. All the 
posters advertising school activities, such as plays and 
liberty loan drives, are made in the department, as are 
illustrations and decorations of the school papers and 
magazines which may be printed in the school shops. 

In the mechanical drawing department, the student 



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THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 



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may now add to his course in geometrical drawing very 
complete and well-organized courses in mechanical, 
architectural, or ship drafting, mapping, etc., as he may 
elect. These courses are, generally speaking, based 
upon the apprentice system as established in the various 
trades and professions. Local conditions and demands 
for labor will determine largely what branches of ad- 
vanced mechanical drawing will be offered. The ad- 
vantages to the student consist of a properly organized 
and complete course, increased personal supervision, and 
the opportunity for related technical studies. 

This development of the drawing department along 
vocational lines fills a long-felt need. Not only does it 
reduce the period of apprenticeship for the student whose 
schooling must stop with the high school, but it provides 
a proper foundation for the study of design should the 
student continue his studies in the university or else- 
where. University graduates have been notoriously 
lacking in knowledge of working drawings and simple 
detail, and it is just here that the technical school lays 
special emphasis. That this type of instruction meets 
with the approval of the outside business world is shown 
by the fact that large companies and corporations have 
offered to take on any student who completes such a 
course with the recommendations of his instructor. 

The first two years in the university, up to the present 
time, have been looked upon as a transitional period 
during which the student was expected to acquire a new 
set of standards, assimilate the traditions, and become 
accustomed to the atmosphere of the institution, — find 
himself. The studies in these two years are largely a 
matter of reviewing and finishing subjects taken in the 
high school, — in the engineering college such subjects 
are mathematics, science, drawing, history, and lan- 
guages. What engineer or architect does not remember 
the disappointment that was his upon finding his first 
year of college mathematics and science was simply a 
thorough review of his high school work? With closer 
correlation and sympathy established between the high 
school and the university, there seems to be no reason 
why at least one year of this reviewing period could not 
be eliminated, and the student thus enabled to begin 
his professional studies immediately. This change does 
not mean the elimination of cultural subjects, but rather 
increased opportunity for them. The subject of voca- 
tional guidance is being developed, to the end that the 
student should be enabled to find himself before arriving 
at the university, and start there with clear and definite 
ideas as to his future career. 

General Considerations. — ■ Before discussing separately 
the various units of the drawing department it would be 
well to make note of some general considerations apply- 
ing to all. 



For both freehand and mechanical drawing the student 
requires a considerably greater amount of floor space 
than in the classroom. In elementary courses the ratio 
of space required for drawing to that for classrooms will 
be about four to three in freehand and five to three in 
mechanical drawing. These ratios will increase for 
advanced classes. The arrangements shown in the il- 
lustrations (Figure 359) of elementary freehand drawing 
rooms and (Figure 360) of geometrical drawing rooms 
show the maximum numbers of students for such classes. 
The instruction in drawing classes is of necessity largely 
individual, supplemented at more or less definitely fixed 
intervals by talks, tests, and discussions, progressively 
developing the basic principles of the subject. Such a 
scheme naturally reduces the number of students an 
instructor can effectively handle. Recognition of the 
value of individual instruction, possible only in smaller 
classes, is found in the Smith-Hughes Act, which limits 
to twenty the number of students of any class complying 
with its regulations. In freehand drawing the number 
of students should be limited to thirty in elementary 
classes and to twenty-four in advanced classes. In 
mechanical drawing the number of students should be 
limited to twenty-four in elementary classes and to 
twenty in advanced classes. 

Light. — The problem of light in the drawing room 
and, in fact, in the whole school is one on which it is 
difficult to get any consensus of opinion. A northerly 
light is undoubtedly the best, but means a sacrifice of 
the warmth and cheer of sunlight. The orientation will 
depend upon local climatic conditions, and where 
instructors in charge have definite opinions they should 
be consulted. In cold damp climates, the warmth and 
cheer of sunlight will generally be felt to outweigh its 
disadvantages from the point of view of lighting. In 
very warm climates, where the sun is to be avoided, the 
reverse will be true. Let us say then that the light 
should be unilateral — to prevent the confusion of 
shadow resulting from cross lighting — and very plenti- 
ful, as drawing, especially mechanical drawing, is much 
more trying on the eyes than the work of the classroom. 
Particular care should be taken to see that the lighting 
conditions are as nearly ideal as possible. 

For mechanical drawing, the light should come from 
the front and left of the student in order that he may not 
be bothered by shadows cast by T square and triangle. 
It will generally be found most satisfactory to have the 
student face the light. This statement may occasion 
some surprise, as one's natural thought is to have the 
windows to the left of the student. Experience has 
proved that the light is not often too strong even for the 
row next to the windows. Frosting the lower portion 
of the windows removes objection to the strongest light. 



4i6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



The tops of the desks being inclined, the student will 
not be bothered by the reflection of light in his eyes. 
To face the light, absolutely removes the possibility of 
having one's T squares cast a shadow upon the drawing. 
It will be seen in the illustrations (Figure 360) that for the 
standard width of classroom this scheme gives the best 
arrangement. The light at the desks which are cross- 
hatched is undesirable. 

Night Lighting. — More spectacular in its growth 
even than that of vocational education is the idea of 
the continuation school. This kind of school makes 
possible a use of our costly educational plant more than 
doubling the operation of earlier times, and at only a 
slightly increased cost. One of the problems that the 
continuation school adds is that of lighting for night 
work. 

In the night lighting of the mechanical drawing room, 
the whole room should be lighted by a system of indirect 
or semi-indirect lights of low intensity, with points of 
higher intensic brilliancy to the front and left of each 
student. This double system is necessary, as the simple 
indirect system of lighting results in a confusion of 
shadow, severely handicapping the draftsman, whereas 
the old scheme of drop lights gives a sharp contrast of 
dark and light — a glare that strains the eyes badly. 

Wall Covering. — Each drawing room should contain 
a blackboard not less than twenty feet in length. The 
wall opposite the windows will usually be found to be 
most convenient. Any wall surface below the line of 
the head of the doors should be covered with a cork 
carpet, burlap-covered linoleum, or other suitable ma- 
terial, permitting a free use of thumb-tacks to hand 
drawings, etc. This covering makes possible the use 
of all the available wall space for the exhibition of 
drawings, prints, etc. There is no greater stimulus 
to the interest and activity of the students than the 
exhibition of their own drawings and those of their 
fellows. 

The concealed wire picture molds and the inlaid 
cork strip are not only inadequate but unsatisfactory in 
other ways. The concealed wire is mechanically such 
a nuisance to operate that it is seldom used if installed. 
The cork inlay idea has the unfortunate objection that 
the prints or drawings must cut across the molding. 
The appearance is very unpleasing. 

The walls should be of comparatively low tones — 
pleasing grays, tans, or browns that harmonize with the 
woodwork. The low tones will reduce the very distress- 
ing reflections. This consideration, especially in the 
freehand department, cannot be too strongly emphasized. 
Other general considerations of trim and floor covering 
are the same as those of the classroom and are dealt with 
in that chapter. 



The Freehand Department. The Courses. — The 

tendency to multiply courses in applied or industrial 

art has already been mentioned. A brief outline of 

some of the courses offered should be of value : 

I. Elementary Freehand Drawing covers the principles 

of perspective and a study of tone values in pencil 

and charcoal. This course is prerequisite to all 

other courses in drawing and design and fulfills 

the university requirement. This course covers 

a period of one year, generally taken during the 

first year. 

II. Advanced Freehand Drawing. In this course other 

mediums may be employed, such as watercolor or 

pen and ink. The student adds to his study of 

line, form, and tone that of color and composition. 

These courses develop into a great variety of allied 

or related subjects, such as : 

1. Commercial Art. Special emphasis is placed 
on lettering, color, and composition. The 
various methods of reproducing posters, etc., 
and commercial methods are included in the 
course. 

2. Art Metal and other art craft subjects, such as 
pottery making, weaving, bookbinding, etc. 
The study of design and technique. 

3. Interior Decoration. A course that is often 
made a requisite in the domestic arts and science 
department. A study of harmony in color and 
arrangement of furnishings of the home, etc. 

4. Costume Design. This course involves the 
study of anatomy, history, and design. 

The Equipment. — There are two general schemes 
which find favor in the equipping of the freehand drawing 
room ; each has its advantages and disadvantages. See 
rooms A and B of Figure 359. For the sake of convenience 
let us call the first, A, the informal scheme. In this 
scheme each student has an individual rack on which 
to rest his pad or board. These racks hold pencils, 
erasers, etc., and may or may not contain a shelf for the 
student's books. A foot rest serves to steady the rack. 
In this scheme separate model stands should be provided , 
and they should preferably be made adjustable as to 
height. 

The second, or formal scheme, B, utilizes for models 
and studies large flat tables with a low partition running 
down the center and serving as a background. The 
student in this arrangement rests his board or pad on 
the edge of the table. These tables are made to accom- 
modate from eight to ten students. 

The formal scheme gives a fixed and permanent 
arrangement which greatly reduces the noise and con- 
fusion of a multitude of small pieces of furniture ar- 
ranged in an informal manner. The first scheme makes 



THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 361. 



possible' a greater variety of arrangement of studies and 
lighting. With an adjustable model stand, not only 
can the model be viewed from all sides, but the elevations 
may be varied. Added to the noise and confusion of 
the smaller units, is the difficulty of arranging suitable 
backgrounds. The informal scheme is the more ex- 
pensive of the two. 

In the classroom the development has been from the 
old benches, accommodating a number of students, to 
the present-day individual seats and desks ; so in the 
drawing room there has been a constant change from the 
larger to the smaller units. Undoubtedly the informal 
scheme demands more rigid discipline, and it seems that 
the best freehand teachers are not always the best 
disciplinarians. When the informal scheme has not 
proved satisfactory, there has been in almost every 
instance a lack of discipline or complete equipment. 
If the informal scheme is given a thorough trial, it will 
justify itself. 

For both the informal and formal schemes, low-backed 
chairs of oak or other suitable wood will be found most 



satisfactory. Lighter types of studio or folding chairs, 
while very desirable for out-of-door work, are too fragile 
for use in public schools. 

Individual lockers should be provided in all drawing 
rooms. In the freehand rooms they will probably be 
taken care of most satisfactorily in wall cabinets. There 
are two types in general use. The one in which each 
student has an individual key offers the objection that 
the keys are continually being lost and their replacement, 
as well as the handling of deposits, is an additional burden 
to the teacher. The other type, E, Figure 359, has groups 
of about ten lockers in a compartment to which the 
instructor only has a key. Three of these compartments 
will serve a class. This is undoubtedly the best scheme 
for the freehand drawing rooms. 

For advanced classes in watercolor, etc., the equip- 
ment noted above should be supplemented with a small, 
low table for each pair of students. This will provide 
a place on which to keep their colors, water, etc. 

Screens on which to hang models and drawings are 
desirable for advanced classes, although they are apt to 



'2pO 




THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 



419 



interfere with the lighting of the interior of the room. 
Those shown in Figure 361 are too high. The height of 
the blackboard is about right. These screens would be 
improved if there was a shelf on each side instead of the 
one shown. The additional shelf would make the 
screen equally desirable and usable on both sides. 

For commercial art and design classes, mechanical 
drawing desks are the most satisfactory. For costume 
design large flat tables are desirable, as they afford 
freedom in laying out patterns, stencils, etc., which the 
smaller units do not. The artcraft courses offered will 
depend entirely upon local conditions and demand, and 
the special equipment required should be determined 
by consulting with the instructor in charge. 

The Mechanical Drawing Department. Courses. — 
In this mechanical drawing department the courses 
usually offered are : 
I. Geometrical Drawing. This course covers the use of 
the instruments, the elements of geometry as applied 
to drawing, projections, and some perspective. It 
satisfies the university requirement and is pre- 
requisite to any course in advanced technical 
drawing. The course covers a period of one year, 
taken during the second year, if it is to be followed 
by advanced drawing. The periods are from one 
hour to one hour and a half a day: 
II. Trade Drawing. This course will generally be 
arranged to fulfill the requirements of the Smith- 
Hughes Act. The students in this group are to 
become mechanics, electricians, carpenters, etc. 
As they take but one period of drawing per day, 
the course is designed primarily to enable them to 
read and work from blue prints and to lay out their 
work properly. The course includes plates of 
essential geometrical problems, projections, and 
sketching. This course requires an extensive 
library of working drawings, as one does not learn 
to read blue prints without the blue prints. The 
number of students is limited to twenty. 
III. Advanced Technical Drawing. Upon completion 
of the course in geometrical drawing, the students 
may elect any one of a number of courses in 
advanced technical drawing, such as : 

1. Machine Drawing. 

2. Architectural Drawing. 

3. Ship Drafting. 

4. Mapping, etc. 

Elementary freehand drawing and geometrical 

drawing are prerequisite to all such courses. 

The student in these courses first draws and traces 

full size or large scale details, thus getting acquainted 

with the elements he is to use later in the small scale 

assembly working drawings. These will be followed by 



the complete working drawings of a gas engine, a house, 
etc., depending upon the course the student elects. 
The elements of design are introduced progressively, and 
the work in the drafting room is supplemented by related 
work in the shops, science, and mathematics departments. 
Thus the student gains a knowledge of materials, an 
essential to any serious work in design. By the use of 
laboratory methods, such courses as graphic statics and 
strength of materials may be effectively given in the 
high school. 

The Geometrical Drawing Rooms (Figure 360) . — The 
number of students in geometrical drawing classes should 
not exceed twenty-four. The equipment will consist of 
the four-locker type " A " desks, such as shown in 
Figure 360; a small drawing board i6"X2i" for each 
student ; a print rack and drawing file ; a desk and chair 
for the instructor. 

There should be no stools in any geometrical drawing 
class where the periods do not exceed an hour and a half 
in length. The stools make a great deal of noise and 
increase the necessary janitor service. It has been 
found that the students do a great deal more and better 
work if they stand. Since there may be a number of 
students who are unable to stand, a few stools should 
be provided. These stools will be kept in the storeroom 
when not needed. 

The desk of standard height will prove too high for 
some students, and so a few low platforms will be found 
necessary. Adjustable tops to the desks are probably 
inadvisable. The average boy will be inclined to go 
the limit with any adjustment, and, as a consequence, 
the inclination of the top of the desk will be too great, 
causing pencils, ink, etc., to fall to the floor. Again, 
parts will frequently be broken or lost — school equip- 
ment should be not only fool-proof but boy-proof. 
Another objectionable feature of adjustable tops is the 
open space which serves as a catch-all for papers, dust, 
and dirt. 

The lockers should not be less than three inches wide 
in the clear and large enough to accommodate a twenty- 
four inch " T " square. There should be a shelf four 
to six inches from the top for the ink instruments, etc. 
The lockers should be provided with good locks, as 
instruments are expensive, and the danger of their loss 
should be minimized. The four lockers will accommo- 
date the three day-school classes and one continuation 
class for which the room should serve. 

A blue-print rack to hold the small scale prints should 
be provided. This may be combined with the drawing 
files. Drawings should not be kept in the students' 
lockers, as they are certain to be damaged. 

The Trade Drawing Room. — Here the number of 
student desks will be limited to twenty. The desks 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



should be of the type "B," containing six lockers, as 
the classes are small and often in session for periods 
of only forty minutes, so there will be more of them to 
provide for. Besides the filing cabinet for drawings, 
there should be a model cabinet for the shop models, 
and a filing cabinet for the library of working drawings. 
The instructor should have a drawing desk in addition 
to the regular teacher's desk and chair. 

The Technical Drawing Room (Figure 362). — An ad- 
vanced technical drawing class should not exceed twenty 




; DEPARTMENTAL ; 
- L15RAKT - LECTURE ROOM - 4 .STUDY 



Fig. 363. 

in number. The equipment will consist of type " B " 
six-locker desks (see Figure 360), as these rooms will be 
in demand for continuation school classes. A number 
of large detail tables should be provided, and some large 
drawing boards in addition to those which go into the 
lockers. These could be kept in the table serving the 
detail tables (Figure 362). The filing cabinets for 
drawings should be more elastic than for geometrical 
drawing classes, when the drawings are of a single stand- 
ard size. 

The machine drafting room should contain display 
cases for machine parts, etc., which the students study 
and draw (Figure 362). 

In the architectural drawing room, plaster models of 
the orders will make possible a better understanding of 



the classic form and afford an ideal comparison of the 
orders. The five feet or so above the blackboard might 
well be used for this purpose. 

In the technical drawing classes some such scheme for 
a detail rack as suggested in Figure 362 will prove very 
useful. Typical details at full size or a large scale for 
reference and instruction are absolutely essential. A 
roller arrangement is a very convenient one. The in- 
structor should have a drawing desk for his own use, as 
he will have constant need of one. 

Some Rooms in the High School. — 
The Library, Lecture Room, and Study 
(Figure 363). — One of the real problems 
to be met with in any large high school 
is that of proper studying accommoda- 
tion. For best results, study rooms should 
not be larger than classrooms. 

Departmental libraries bring the special 
books, magazines, and catalogues to the 
department where they are used and re- 
duce the congestion in the main library. 
This latter consideration is very impor- 
tant, as large groups in high school are 
not conducive to good discipline or satis- 
factory study. 

In the drawing library, the instructors 
of the department would be in charge, 
and the students majoring in the shop 
and drawing departments would be the 
ones to study there. This room could 
j, meet the heed of a lecture room for the 
Zqt vyyyy\ department, and if necessary, could serve 

^\/ as a classroom. For lantern slides an 

aluminum painted curtain and a base re- 
ceptacle should be provided. 

Offices. — Small offices should be pro- 
vided, each to accommodate two or three 
teachers. These offices afford privacy for 
rest, work, and conferences with fellow teachers or 
students. Large rest rooms for teachers are unsatis- 
factory. The privacy is lost, and one cannot rest when 
many are free to use the room. Again, when the school 
grows, any rest room of size is certain to be turned into 
a classroom. This is a mistake, as it not only leaves 
the teachers no place to go, but makes an unsatisfactory 
classroom. 

The head of the department will keep in his office 
files of all drawings made on order of the Board, the 
principal, or other authorized parties. These will in- 
clude drawings made for work to be done in shops. 

Store and Blue-print Rooms. — Ample storage space 
should be provided for the departmental supplies of 
tracing-paper, cloth, detail paper, inks, colors, etc. In 



THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 364. — Mechanical Drawing Room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



Figure 362 an arrangement combining the office for two 
teachers with the storeroom and blue-printing room is 
shown. This is a desirable arrangement as it affords 
more definite supervision over the supplies and blue-print 
apparatus. Such a scheme will insure the making of 
blue prints in a neat, workmanlike manner, and without 
undue waste of materials. 

The tendency in schools has been to make shift with 
a simple blue-print frame carried by hand to the nearest 
accessible sunlight — when there was sunlight. Such 
an arrangement is, of course, inadequate where technical 
and trade courses are offered, demanding large numbers 
of blue prints. When the blue-print room has a sunny 
exposure, the cheapest satisfactory arrangement is one 
consisting of tracks on which the blue-print frame is 
run out through a window to the sunlight. There should 
be adjustments to bring the glass to a position perpendic- 
ular to the rays of the sun. This scheme has the objec- 
tion of being unsightly, and the tracks on the window sill 
offer difficulties in making it weather tight. Another 
scheme somewhat more expensive is to have the blue- 
print frame mounted on a carriage. Where the sunlight 



is readily accessible this arrangement will prove very 
satisfactory. If it is necessary to build a special plat- 
form or balcony for the exposure, the expense will 
count against it. 

The electric blue-printing machine is the most desir- 
able in every way. A vertical cylindrical blue-print 
frame can be installed at an expense not greatly exceed- 
ing that of the preceding scheme with a platform or 
balcony, and all dependence upon the sun is removed. 
This is important, as the demand for blue prints is not 
regulated by the sun. Blue-printing for and by evening 
school students becomes possible with the electric 
machine. In addition to these considerations the ex- 
perience of using an electrical machine will prove of 
real benefit to the student who goes to work for a com- 
pany or corporation which does its own blue-printing. 

The blue-print bath should be generous in size, say 
3' o"X5' o". For drying, wires may be strung across 
the room at a convenient height. 

Dark Room. — In any school of size a dark room will 
prove very useful. The room will be used largely by 
the instructors in the drawing and science departments, 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 365. — Freehand Drawing Room, Grover 

but will also serve for advanced students in commercial 
art and printing, photographic work of all kinds — the 
making of plates, and slides of lecture and laboratory 
purposes can be done here. 

The arrangement shown gives ample working space 
and accommodation for two persons to work at once. 
Too much space is equally as objectionable as too little. 
One should, as far as is possible, be able to reach from 
one position everything that may be needed. 

An ordinary narrow porcelain kitchen sink is the most 
satisfactory. A wooden mat, resting on the drain- 
boards and extending over the sink, serves to keep the 
trays on a level. In the main, plentiful open shelving, 
six to eight inches deep, is more desirable than cabinets 
with doors. A small cabinet with locks for material 
and equipment of value should be provided. A table 
not less than six feet in length should be provided for 
enlarging, etc. The approach or entrance to the dark 
room (there should be but one) should be so arranged 
that a person may enter without admitting light. The 
small cross partition should extend only far enough to 
cut off any direct rays of light. The approach should 
be painted black to prevent reflections, but the interior 



Mr. Wm. B. Iltner, 



Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 

of the dark room, where the light is controlled, should 
be light in tone. 

Summary. — There is a very definite demand being 
made upon the drawing departments of our public schools 
for instruction in vocational drawing of every descrip- 
tion. This is true of both freehand and mechanical 
drawing. This demand must be met with properly 
equipped drawing rooms and capable instructors. The 
old idea that a person with a bachelor's degree and a 
teacher's certificate is fitted to teach anybody anything 
must be modified if we are to gain and hold the respect 
of the outside business world. Technical drawing 
instructors must have, in addition to their special 
technical training, actual practical experience if they 
are to render the service that is expected of them. The 
almost universal weakness of our shop departments has 
been that the men who had the necessary experience as 
machinists, carpenters, etc., did not have the necessary 
technical and educational qualifications. The tendency 
and danger in technical drawing subjects is of the op- 
posite nature but equally objectionable. 

In public schools special rooms for drawing are prob- 
ably inadvisable until the intermediate grade is reached. 



THE DRAWING DEPARTMENT 



423 



Special teachers are more necessary than special rooms. 
For obvious reasons the width and height of rooms will 
generally be the same as those established for the class- 
room. For the elementary freehand and mechanical 
drawing work in the high school the standard size of 
classrooms will prove satisfactory. The advanced classes 
will require more room. 

It will often be necessary, or at least be good policy, 
to have the same room serve for geometrical drawing 
and advanced technical drawing. The room should, 
of course, be arranged and furnished as an advanced 
technical drawing room. If the maximum number of 
students possible in geometrical drawing is to be ac- 
commodated, the room must be larger than that shown 
in Figure 362. 

The lighting of drawing rooms should be given special 
attention. Local climatic conditions are to be con- 
sidered, and the opinion of the instructors in charge 
should be consulted. The lighting should be unilateral 
(from one side) to avoid confusion of shadows. Figure 
364 shows a good drawing room which would have been 



improved by the omission of the smaller windows. For 
freehand drawing, the scheme of inclined windows 
shown in Figure 365 is very good, and is recommended 
where cost and structural conditions permit. 

A small departmental library, which may serve as a. 
lecture room and study, will prove to be of great value. 
The technical books, magazines, and catalogues will 
then be located where they will do the most good. There 
will be a vast saving of time and prevention of unneces- 
sary crowding in the main library. 

Small offices, combined with storerooms, blue-print 
rooms, etc., to take up the depth of a classroom, are 
most desirable. 

The drawing department, when possible, should be 
located in or near the center of the group of related 
subjects. These are the shops, the science, and home 
economics departments. The shops will naturally be 
farthest removed from the purely academic department, 
and the drawing department will generally be found to 
fit best between the shops and the other two depart- 
ments. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 

By Walter A. Tenney, Principal of the Vocational High School, Oakland, California 

General Remarks. High School Shops. Location. Lighting. Correlation. Demonstration Room. Wash and Locker Rooms. 
Offices. Number of Students to Classes. Power. Pattern Shop. Grinding Room. Machine Shop. Foundry. Forge Shop. 
Automobile Shop. Electrical Shop. Plumbing Shop. Sheet Metal Shop. Cabinet Shop. Carpenter Shop. Exhibit Room. 
Central Storeroom. Intermediate or Junior High School Shops. Conclusion. 



General Remarks. — Educational thought has, for a 
number of years, had a pronounced and well-nigh uni- 
versal trend towards a wider recognition of the need for 
industrial and vocational education. The idea, that the 
modern school system should serve the needs of " all 
the children of all the people," has been generally ac- 
cepted, not only among educators, but among thinking 
men and women in all walks of life. There is an insist- 
ent and growing demand that the work of the school 
connect more closely with the future work of the students, 
— that in addition to the cultural studies there should 
be training preparatory to the work which the students 
will do for a livelihood. 

Since a majority of students, upon leaving school, 
engage in some form of commercial or industrial work, 
it follows that a democratic school system must provide 
courses and equipment which will prepare such students 
for the lives of activity they will enter with the same 
care and thoroughness with which other students are 
prepared for a professional career. Therefore, any study 
of modern school architecture must give prominence to 
the planning and arrangement of the rooms devoted to 
industrial and vocational training, — ■ in other words, to 
the Industrial Arts department. 

The intelligent designing of a school building must 
have as the fundamental basis of all planning, a considera- 
tion of the activities to be carried on within the building. 
In planning any particular room or group of rooms the 
architect and school man must consider first the nature 
of the work to be done, the number of pupils to be 
accommodated, and the necessary equipment. These 
three factors will determine the size, character, and 
arrangement of the rooms to be built ; the funds avail- 
able, of course, being a determining factor in the quality 
of building. 

In a work of this kind it is impossible to give plans 
that are directly and completely adaptable to the needs 



of all communities, and all types and grades of schools. 
This chapter will attempt to give typical examples of 
what are thought to be good arrangements for shop or 
manual training rooms, and to discuss briefly the funda- 
mental elements which form the basis in planning 
similar units in any school, in the hope that architects 
and school officials may find here some assistance in the 
solution of their problems. 

The High School Shops. — The high school of the 
future, in all large communities, will undoubtedly be 
what is known as the cosmopolitan or inclusive high 
school. Because such a school would offer the greatest 
possible number of courses, and would furnish the 
greatest amount and variety of equipment, to be found 
in any high school, it will be used here to illustrate 
typical high school installations. 

The first question to answer is, what kinds of industrial 
training shall be given? What shops shall be built and 
equipped? Local needs and conditions may lead to 
the emphasis of one or another particular industry, but 
in general, there are certain forms of industrial training 
that are common to all localities, certain trades which 
are basic, which form the foundation for many hundreds 
of specialized occupations. Such is the machinist trade. 
Its principles and processes are found in thousands of 
occupations, from the making of a watch to the building 
of a locomotive. These basic trades, then, should, make 
up the main part of the industrial arts department. The 
machinist, blacksmith, foundry, and pattern-making 
trades form what might be called the iron trades group. 
These should be installed in the large inclusive high 
school. 

However, the installation of the high school foundry 
is a debatable question. A really practical foundry with 
up-to-date equipment including cupola, traveling crane, 
etc., will cost to equip $8000 or $12,000 in addition to the 
cost of the building. But few boys whose desire for 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



.425 




education holds them through the high school period 
will take up foundry work as an occupation. If the 
supplying of castings to the machine shop is argued as 
a reason for putting in a school foundry, it should be 
remembered that the castings so obtained are quite 
likely to be inferior, and to cost as much or more than if 
obtained from a commercial foundry. It is sometimes 
thought desirable to give a certain amount of foundry 
work to the pattern maker and machinist students, that 
they may gain some knowledge, through practical 
experience, of this trade which is so closely related to 
their own. It is very doubtful, however, if either the 
educational or practical value of such a course would 
justify the expense. Nevertheless, foundries are estab- 
lished in many of the large high schools, therefore a 
typical installation will be considered in this discussion. 

Automobile mechanics is a special branch of the 
machinist trade, yet so great and so widespread is the 
demand for this work that the large school should have 
a separate shop for it. 

This is the age of electricity. Its applications are 
increasingly numerous. A thorough practical and theo- 
retical knowledge of electricity will lead to employment 
in many different fields, making this one of the basic 
trades. An electrical shop, then, will be included in our 
plan. 

Plumbing and steam fitting, sheet metal work, car- 
pentry, and cabinetmaking comprise the building trades 



s, Oakland, California 



group. These occupations are demanded in every com- 
munity. Cabinetmaking might be taught in connection 
with carpentry, using the same shop and equipment, but 
in the large school these departments should have 
separate accommodations. 

Printing is an occupation found in every community. 
It has a decided vocational value, and with its related 
courses in English, history, and journalism has an 
educational or cultural value probably unsurpassed by 
any course in the high school. 

The trades above named are common to all urban 
communities, and many of them are so basic that the 
graduate student, if he possesses the quality of adapta- 
bility, will be able to apply his knowledge to any one of a 
great variety of occupations. The inclusive high school 
in the larger cities, should provide for most or all of these 
in its plan for instruction. 

Location. — The next question to consider is the loca- 
tion of the industrial arts department. The ideal ar- 
rangement is to have the shops in a separate building or 
group of buildings, and where sufficient land is available 
all on the ground floor. The initial cost is somewhat 
greater for this type of construction, but it has decided 
advantages. Figure 366 gives an exterior view, and 
Figure 367 gives the floor plan of the industrial 
arts department of the Technical High School of Oak- 
land, California, an example of the type of building 
above referred to, in the designing of which the writer 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



427 



collaborated with the architect. While this example is 
not presented as a perfect solution of all the problems of 
school shop planning, it has many points of excellence 
and superiority over those of other school buildings 
throughout the country, which commend it to the study 
of architects and boards of education. 

Where the above arrangement cannot be secured, 
owing to lack of building space or funds, the next best 
arrangement is a separate building of more than one 
story. And last and least desirable of all, is where, as in 
a thickly populated city with limited building area, the 
whole school, shops and all, must be housed in one large . 
building of many stories. 

When building under either of the two last-named con- 
ditions, the shops having heavy equipment and handling 
heavy materials, such as machine shop, forge shop, and 
foundry, should be located on the ground floor, and in the 
event of the shops being located in the same building with 
the rest of the school, care should be taken to isolate them 
as much as possible, and to separate them by specially 
constructed walls and floors from classrooms which 
would suffer from the noise or vibration of machinery. 

Lighting. — One very important feature in planning 
the shop building, and one which is often neglected to 
the discomfort and possible injury of the students, is the 
lighting. Not only is the quantity of light, but also the 
angle at which it falls upon the work, of the greatest 
importance. Skylights have often been resorted to in 
shop buildings, and have found numerous advocates. 
In the opinion of the author, there is only one condition 
under which skylights are permissible, and that is when 
the building is so situated that it is impossible to obtain 
sufficient lateral lighting. The proper lighting for 
school shops is the modern factory lighting, in which the 
walls consist mainly of a series of supporting columns 
with the intervening spaces filled with glass set in steel 
sash. Figure 366 illustrates an excellent example of 
proper and adequate shop lighting. On the east, south, 
and west sides, it is advantageous to have the windows 
glazed with ribbed or diffusing glass. On the north 
side, plane glass is preferable. 

Correlation. — In a large group, such as is here con- 
templated, the position of individual shops with relation 
to each other should be considered. For example, the 
metal-working shops should be grouped together. The 
foundry and machine shop especially should be adjoining 
each other, and it is desirable to have the pattern shop 
not too far removed. As a general rule, it might be 
stated that the shops in which the work is of a similar 
nature, is interrelated or dependent upon each other, 
should be grouped together as far as possible. 

Demonstration Room. — In many schools a so-called 
demonstration theater is provided in one end or corner 



of each shop. In a " class A," or even less expensive 
type of building, where every square foot of floor space 
means an outlay of many dollars, this is, in most in- 
stances, an expense for which there is inadequate return. 
It is found that these demonstration theaters are in use 
but a very small proportion of the time. Therefore, if 
one lecture and demonstration theater can be located so 
as to be reasonably accessible to all the shops, it will 
serve all purposes, and effect a great saving both in 
floor space and equipment. Reference to Figures 367 
and 400 will show how such a plan was worked 
out. This room is provided with blackboard, demon- 
stration tables and benches, also with an electric cabinet 
furnishing current both direct and alternating and of 
various phases and voltages, for electrical demonstra- 
tions or for furnishing power to operate machines for 
demonstration purposes. The room is also arranged 
for stereopticon or moving picture work and may be 
darkened for this purpose in the daytime. 

Wash and Locker Rooms. — Wash and locker rooms 
should be provided, within easy access of the shops. The 
washroom should be supplied with both hot and cold 
water. A very satisfactory method is to install an 
automatic gas water heater with thermostat. This will 
insure a constant supply of water of the proper tempera- 
ture. A portion of the washroom should be separated 
by partitions for toilets and urinals, the number depend- 
ing on the number of pupils to be accommodated. The 
lockers may be installed in the same room as the wash- 
stands. This is a very satisfactory arrangement, as it 
saves time and confusion of pupils running about from 
room to room between classes. Figure 367 shows a 
wash and locker room for each two shops. 

Offices. — Each shop should also have a small office 
for the instructor, and a tool and supply room. In 
some of the shops a supply or storeroom separate from 
the tool room is needed, in which to keep finished or 
unfinished work and supplies which it is sometimes 
advisable to draw in considerable quantities from the 
central storeroom. If a central storeroom for the 
entire school plant is not maintained, the supply rooms 
for individual shops will need to be larger in some 
instances. These accessories are all shown on the floor 
plans which illustrate this chapter. 

Number of Students to Classes. — The next question 
to consider is the number of students in a class. This 
will depend on whether the school is to conduct strictly 
vocational classes, or general manual training classes, 
or both. 

The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act has given a 
great impetus to vocational education, and doubtless 
under this influence most large high schools will offer 
vocational courses. These courses are now being intro- 



,jY¥n 




° "* 2 " " 



-a p a 1 n -» o d 



43° 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



duced in many of the college preparatory or classical 
high schools, which had previously given no attention to 
such work. One result of this law has been to limit the 
number of students in a class. It is generally agreed by 
experts that fifteen is the maximum number that can be 
taught with success in trade classes, and this is the limit 
fixed by law in some states, though in others a maximum 
of twenty is allowed, with the idea that the actual 
average attendance will be about fifteen. If strictly 
vocational classes are to be maintained, then the number 
of students to be provided for in a class will be fifteen 
to twenty. 

In so-called technical high schools, where shop work 
is given not with a view to teaching any particular 




Fig. 370. — Pattern Shop Bench. 



trade, but to giving a general knowledge of a number of 
trades to boys who will perhaps later go to college and 
become engineers, or administrative officers, or at least 
will hold positions in industry other than that of me- 
chanics, twenty-four is considered about the ideal num- 
ber in a class. A larger number is sometimes admitted, 
but the results are less satisfactory. 

The shops illustrated in Figures 366 and 367 are 
equipped to accommodate a maximum of twenty-four 
students in a class. The equipment for these shops 
was selected and installed by the writer with a view 
to giving a high grade general manual training course 
to technical high school students. If planning for 
a strictly vocational or trade course, equipment for 
fifteen to twenty students would have been provided 



and the largest shops might have been slightly reduced 
in size. The shops here shown are forty-five feet in 
width and vary from sixty to one hundred feet in length. 
Figure 367 shows a further development by the author 
of the same general arrangement as shown in Figure 40. 
This is a larger and more complete shop plant, and 
has advantages in arrangement both of buildings and 
equipment. 

By a small addition to the equipment of the shops here 
shown and the employment of an additional teacher, two 
classes can be accommodated in one shop. Where 
there is a large number of classes, this plan effects a 
considerable saving both of room and equipment. Either 
two full-time day classes or one full-time and one part- 
time continuation class may be taught 
at the same time in one shop. And 
since there is nearly always a number 
of machines in a shop, particularly the 
larger and more expensive ones, which 
can be used only part of the time by 
one class, this arrangement allows double 
the number of students to use them 
without the purchase of additional 
equipment. 

Power. — The individual motor drive 
for the greater part of the shop equip- 
ment will be found most satisfactory. 
Though the initial cost of installation is 
more, the cost of upkeep and operation 
is less, due to the fact that if only a 
part of the machines in a given shop are 
running, there is only sufficient power 
used to run those few machines, instead 
of running a large motor and long lines 
of shafting. Another advantage is that, 
with the individual motor drive, a ma- 
chine may be moved at any time and 
set in any part of the shop, or turned at 
any angle, by simply running wires to the motor, which 
cannot be done if line shafting is depended on to transmit 
power. If the machines are belt driven, then the roof 
trusses or ceiling joists must be made stiff enough to 
support the transmission machinery which will have to 
be provided. This will include hangers shafting, pul- 
leys, belting, etc. 

The Pattern Shop (Figure 368). — This shop must have 
floor space for both bench and machine equipment, 
and for assembling large work. A lumber storeroom 
must be provided convenient to this shop, also a store- 
room for finished patterns, and a filing and grinding 
room, which is described later. 

The bench equipment should consist of one work 
bench for each member of a class, each bench equipped 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



43 1 



with side and tail vises, the side vise to be quick 
acting. A very satisfactory bench designed by the 
writer and made in the school shops for use in the 
high schools of Oakland, California, is shown in Figure 
370. The bench contains an individual drawer for 
each student. Each drawer is equipped with the fol- 
lowing tools : 



One bench knife 

One 2' rule. 

One \" chisel. 

One \" chisel. 

One f" chisel. 

One 1" chisel. 

One \" auger bitt. 

One f" auger bitt. 

One \" auger bitt. 

One f" auger bitt. 

One 1" auger bitt. 

One block-plane cutting-iron. 

One smooth-plane cutting-iron. 

The cabinet, on the end of the bench, contains the 
tools used by the students in common. They are as 
follows : 



One jack-plane cutting-iron. 
One pair 8" outside calipers. 
One |" parting tool. 
One |" turning chisel. 
One \" turning chisel. 
One f" turning chisel. 
One 1" turning chisel. 
One J" turning gouge. 
One y turning gouge. 
One |" turning gouge. 
One 1" turning gouge. 
One oilstone slip. 



One if" block plane. 
One 2" smooth plane. 
One 2!" jack plane. 
One 6" sliding T bevel. 
One 6" try square. 
One 6" dividers. 
One marking gauge. 
One claw hammer. 
One oil stone 2" X7" in 
One oil can. 
One mallet . 



One nail set. 
One spoke shave. ' 
One bitt brace. 
One countersink. 
One wood drill No. 4. 
One wood drill No. 5. 
One wood drill No. 6. 
One wood drill No. 7. 
One screwdriver. 
One hacksaw. 



When individual sets of tools are provided, the drawers 
must have locks. A bench with four drawers as shown 
will accommodate four classes. A system of locks for 
these benches should be ordered from the factory, no 
two alike, but under one master key, and made up in 
sets of five locks each. The first four locks, of each set, 
will be put on the drawers, the fifth on the end cabinet. 
The first four keys are fitted so that each will open its 
own drawer, also the end cabinet, but will not open any 
other lock in the system. 

A supply of extra lathe tools, pattern makers' shrinkage 
rules, pinch dogs, large-sized inside and outside calipers, 
sets of flat, medium, and regular sweep inside and out- 
side ground gouges, one core box plane, one adjustable 
curved face plane, one large jointer plane, extra hand- 
rip and crosscut saws, steel squares, etc., should be kept 
in the tool room. 

A i2 ,/ X6o" speed lathe with inside and outside face 
plates should be furnished for each student. The lathes 
should be placed as shown in Figure 368, giving each 



student a bench and lathe with outfit of tools as his 
complete working unit. The bench and lathe together 
require floor space 4X6 feet, and should be placed from 
four to five feet apart. 

The machinery equipment for this shop should be : 



Machine 


Floor Space 


Horse 
Power 


1 16" or 18" universal circular saw, with 


4'5"X s'6 
3' 0" X 6' 2 
6' 3"X 6' 6 
2' o"X 8' 2 
2' 6" X 10' 6 
2'o"X s'3 
2' 0" X 4' 
2' 2" X 4' 


\ 




1 36" band saw, with motor 

1 24" cabinet planer, with motor . . . 
1 12" jointer or buzz planer, with motor . 
1 20" X 10' pattern lathe, with motor . . 
24 12" X60" lathes, with motor . . . . 
1 5" X40" grindstone, with motor . . . 

1 large wood trimmer 

2 small wood trimmers, which will set on 

the work benches and may be carried 
from bench to bench as needed . 


5 

3 
4 
1 each 

Hand 



The pattern shop should also have one or more 
glue heaters, and a large table centrally located for 
laying out and assembling large patterns, and an- 
other for varnishing, also a large supply of both wood 
and iron clamps of various sizes. A truck, for carry- 
ing materials from place to place about the shop, 
from machine to machine, or from shop to shop, is 
very desirable. 

The saws and planers should be provided with hoods 
and piping for taking out the shavings and sawdust. 
This also necessitates a shaving exhauster and motor 
to drive it, also a shaving separator and bin. If the 
shops are of wooden construction the shaving bin should 
be a small brick or concrete structure and separated 
from the other buildings. The installation of the 
shaving exhaust system is shown in Figures 368 and 394, 
where the exhauster and motor are under the floor (it 
might also be placed overhead), the shaving separator 
above the roof of the lumber or pattern storerooms, 
which are lower than the main building, and the shaving 
bin is under the floor of these respective rooms, with 
the outlet pipe from the separator leading vertically, 
down through the center of the room. The shaving 
exhaust system eliminates breathing of dust by students, 
and is thus a health protection as well as a means of 
keeping the shop cleaner and more attractive in appear- 
ance. 

Safety guards should be provided for saws and planers, 
and also belt guards wherever needed. 

The Grinding Room. — In addition to the accessories 
and equipment named above, provisions must be made 
for sharpening the planer and jointer knives, and the 
circular and band saws. The ideal arrangement is to 
have a separate room about 15X20 feet in which should 
be installed the following equipment : 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 373. — Benson Polytechnic High School Machine Shop, Portland, Oregon. 



Floyd A, Naramore, Architect. 



i 30" Automatic plane-knife grinder . 
1 Automatic circular-saw sharpener 
1 Automatic band-saw sharpener . . 
1 Automatic band-saw setting-machine 
1 Trip hammer circular-saw set . . . 
1 Circular-saw swage 



4'o"X7'o" 


2 


2'6"X2'6" 


| 


i'6"X2'8" 




i'o"Xi'o" 




1' o"X2' 0" 


Hand 


i' o"X2' O" 


Hand 



The first two machines may be had with individual 
motors on the machines. There are several types of 
band-saw sharpeners. The one that holds the saw in a 
horizontal position will require a bench about 2' 10" X 
8' o" to hold the machine and the two wheels which 
carry the saw. Another type carries the saw in a vertical 
position, hung on a wheel high up over the machine. 
This latter type requires only about i' 6 // Xi / 6" floor 
space. 

The band-saw setting machine requires only about 
one square foot of space, the circular-saw set and swage 
about two square feet each. One long bench or two 
smaller benches can be arranged to carry the band-saw 



filer, hand-saw setter, circular-saw set, and swage. The 
first two should be power operated. A small shaft can 
be installed under the bench, with pulleys and belts 
from which to drive both machines. Together they 
will require only one-half horse power. The two latter 
machines are hand operated. 

This room should also have a case or cabinet with 
drawers or shelves for containing the grinding wheels, 
files, wrenches, and other supplies for operating the 
machines, and racks for holding the band and circular 
saws. 

One filing and grinding room equipped as described 
will suffice for all the woodworking shops in the school 
plant. 

The Machine Shop (Figure 371). — This illustration 
shows a very satisfactory arrangement of equipment in 
the machine shop, benches against the wall, machines 
placed near the windows to get good light, and ample 
space in the center of the shop for erecting and assembling 
work. It also indicates the routing of material through 
the shop. 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



Either a; long continuous bench with 
drawers underneath and vises placed at 
intervals, or an individual bench such as 
shown in Figure 374 may be used. Since 
a large part of the class is likely to be 
working on the machines most of the time, 
it is not absolutely necessary to have a 
separate bench for every student in the 
class ; but enough drawers must be pro- 
vided so that each student may have a 
separate lock drawer for his equipment. 
With twenty-four students in a class, if 
double periods are given, four classes 
would be taught daily. This would re- 
quire 96 drawers. If continuation classes «H|^| 
are also taught in the same shop, addi- | 
tional drawers should be provided for 
them. The drawers should be of generous 
size to afford the student ample room to 
store his individual tools, working clothes, and small 
pieces of unfinished work. The drawers shown in Figure 
374 are about i' 6" wide, i' 9" long, 9!" deep. 




Fig. 374. — Machine Shop Bench. 
The individual equipment for each student consists of : 

One combination square with 6" scale. 
One pair 6" inside firm joint calipers. 




436 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



One pair 6" outside firm joint calipers. 

One center gauge. 

One machinists' hammer. 

One center punch. 

One or two chisels. 

One pair 6" dividers. 

This is the most expensive of all the shops to equip. 
The machine equipment for a class of twenty-four should 
be as follows : 



the machine shop than in any of the other shops. It 
should be centrally located so as to be reached by 
students from all parts of the shop without too much 
traveling. It should be well lighted and provided with 
a few machines such as tool makers' lathe and universal 
tool and cutter grinder for use of the tool-room attendant 
in making and repairing tools. 

The Foundry (Figure 378). — A reference to the main 
floor plan of the shop building group, Figure 367, shows 



8 Engine lathes 14" X6' o" 

4 Engine lathes 16" X6' o" . . . . . 
3 Engine lathes 18" X8' o" . . . . '. 

1 Engine lathe 24" X 12' o" 

1 Tool-makers' lathe 14" X6' o" . . . 
1 Tool-makers' lathe 16" X6' o" . . . 
1 Small tool-makers' bench lathe . . . 

1 Speed lathe 12" X 5' o" 

1 Large milling machine 

1 Universal milling machine .... 

1 Large universal grinder 

1 Small universal grinder (for tool room) 

1 30" Radial drill 

1 22" Back-geared drill press .... 

1 Sensitive drill press 

1 Wet emery grinder 

1 Dry emery grinder 

1 Planer 30" X 30" X 10' o" 

1 Power hack saw 

1 16" Shaper 

1 Gas hardening furnace 

1 Brazing outfit with stand 

1 Air pump for brazing and hardening 

furnace 

1 Acetylene welding outfit 



o"X 7 

'o"x 7' 

' o" X 9' 
' 6"Xi2' 

'o"X 7' 

'o"X 7' 

'6"X 5' 

'o"X 5' 

'o"x 9' 



3' o" X 4' 

6' 4 "X 7' 

3'o"X 4' 

2'o"X 2' 

i'6"X 2' 

i'6"X 2' 
5'o"Xi6' 

2'o"X 3' 

2' 6" X 4' 1 

2'o"X 3' 

3'o"X 3' 



1 5 each 
1 5 each 
2 each 



Other machines might be added, but the above list 
gives a very satisfactory equipment for a general machine- 
shop course. Two or three of the lathes should be fitted 
with taper attachments, and at least one with a relieving 
attachment, and each should have one universal three- 
jawed and one independent four-jawed chuck. Part of 
the lathes should be belt-driven and part motor-driven ; 
there should also be several different makes of lathes, 
so as to familiarize students with various types. 

A large assortment of tools should be kept in the tool 
room, such as milling cutters of various kinds, mandrels, 
taps and dies, reamers, drills, lathe dogs, clamps, planer 
jacks, standard gauges, scales, dividers, surface gauges, 
vernier and micrometer calipers, tool holders, etc., etc. 
If much tool and gear hardening are to be done a pyro- 
scope or pyrometer and a sclereoscope are very desirable. 
A convenient form of tool-room cabinet is shown in 
Figure 375. A useful tool stand to be placed beside each 
lathe is shown in Figure 376. Figure 377 shows a handy 
device for caring for chucks and face plates. It is 
fastened to the floor at the head of the lathe. 

The tool room is perhaps a more important adjunct in 




Fig. 376. — Tool Stand. 

that the foundry in this design is a wider building than 
any other except the automobile shop. The floor space 
is divided into three areas running lengthwise of the 
shop. The roof over the central portion is higher than 
that over the two side portions. This allows height for 
operating a traveling crane. The crane as well as the 
clerestory is supported by the two rows of columns 
shown. The height of the walls of the other buildings is 
fourteen feet from the floor to the under side of the roof 
trusses. This does not give room to operate a traveling 
crane; therefore, instead of making the whole building 
higher, the central portion only is raised, allowing a crane 
of shorter span to be installed. The smaller crane is 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



437 



less expensive to purchase and to operate, and will 
admit of lighter supports. The span of the crane that 
would be installed in this shop is twenty-four feet. This 
is sufficient space for all heavy floor molding or work 
requiring the use of a crane. The side areas can be 
used for bench molding or light floor molding. 

A smaller shop might suffice for a school, but if a 
building the same width as the other shops in this plan, 
viz., forty-five feet, is built, it is almost too narrow to 
divide into three areas as above, and if this is not done, 
and a crane is installed, it would have to be of forty-five 
foot span. Such a crane would require a heavy bridge, 
larger motors to operate it, and stronger 
supports to carry it, all of which increases 
the expense. 

It is not necessary that the crane 
should operate over the entire area of the 
foundry, therefore the plan suggested in 
Figure 378 is the best where a traveling 
crane is desired. If a small building is 
built for a foundry, then probably no crane 
or only a jib crane should be put in. 

The school foundry crane should be a 
two-ton, three-motor crane, operated from 
the floor. One motor is to drive the 
mechanism which propels the bridge from 
end to end of the building, the second 
motor moves the crane from end to end of 
the bridge, and the third operates the 
hoist. Safety stops should be installed 
to prevent over travel either of bridge, 
crane, or hoist. 

The floor of the foundry should have a 
depth of about two feet of molding sand, 
and in the central portion there should be 
a good-sized area excavated to a depth of 
four to six feet and filled with molding sand for pit molding. 

The cupola should be placed at one end of the foundry, 
as shown, and within reach of the crane. A two-ton 
cupola is about thirty-six inches in diameter above the 
tuyeres. This size is ample for the school foundry. A 
fan or pressure blower with motor to drive it is needed 
to operate the cupola. They may be placed in any con- 
venient position and piped to the cupola. Across this 
end of the building is the charging platform, from which 
the coke and iron are fed into the furnace. This plat- 
form is about 10 feet above the floor. The storeroom for 
coke and iron should be located as close to the cupola 
as possible, to avoid unnecessary time and labor in 
handling. The storeroom in the plan (Figure 378) is 
shown directly back of the cupola, so that the coke and 
iron need be moved but a few feet and picked up by the 
crane and lifted on to the charging platform. 



The core making may be carried on in the main room 
of the foundry, but it is preferable to have it in a separate 
room as shown. Ample bench room should be provided, 
also floor space for keeping core sand and other materials. 
A moderate-sized core oven with the necessary smoke- 
stack should be installed in this room. A metal truck 
which can be wheeled into the oven should be provided 
for handling large cores. 

There should be a room in which patterns may be 
stored in an orderly manner and protected from injury. 

The school foundry should provide facilities for making 
castings of brass, bronze, aluminum, and other of the 




Fig. 377. — Chuck Rack. 



softer metals. The brass furnace may be placed in any 
convenient part of the foundry, preferably near the supply 
of fuel and metals. The one shown in the plan is prac- 
tically three furnaces combined, so that three crucibles 
can be operated at once. 

Various types of brass furnaces are in use, some burning 
oil, others burning coke. A simple form of furnace to 
construct is that shown in the plan. It is built of brick 
with iron grate and top, and is lined with fire brick. 
The flues from the three fire pots lead into the same 
smokestack. Coke is used in this furnace, and it may 
be operated either with or without forced draft. The 
furnace is sunk into the ground, the top being only eight 
or ten inches above the floor. As the furnace is out of 
reach of the large traveling crane, a jib crane may be 
installed within convenient reach. 

Along the sides of the building are placed benches 



■soomiioD 



=m 




THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 




■MUM 



upon which light molding can be done. These molding 
benches are sometimes built in the form of bins in which 
some special or fine grade of molding sand is kept. They 
are 4/ 6" wide, by 6' o" long, and are double so that a 
student may work from either side. 

Other stationary equipment needed for the foundry is : 



Machine 


Floor Space 


Horse Power 


1 Core-wire straightener .... 
1 Tumbling barrel with motor . . 

1 Electric sand riddle 

1 Emery grinder with motor . . . 


2'o"X2'o" 
4 'S"X8'6" 
4' 0" X 4 ' 0" 
1' 6"X2' 4" 


1 



Each student should be provided with a molder's 
tool box and an assortment of molder's trowels, slicks, 
and other tools for finishing molds, lifters, gate cutters, 
swabs and swab dishes, parting sand dishes and dusters, 
shovels, riddles, bellows, molder's brushes, and camel's- 
hair brushes, etc. 

There should be an assortment of large ladles with 
swivel shanks, also small hand ladles with shanks, snap 
flasks and weights of various sizes, flask clamps, clamp 
bars, wheelbarrows for coke and iron, a thousand-pound 
scrap-iron scale, crucibles, and other tools and appli- 
ances. Wooden molder's flasks of all sizes should be 
made as needed in the woodworking shop. 



The Forge Shop (Figure 380) . — The floor plan here 
shown and the photograph (Figure 381) illustrate the 
proper arrangement of equipment in the forge shop, two 
rows of double forges running lengthwise of the room, 
with ample working space between them, benches con- 
taining the blacksmiths' vises against the wall, and the 
power hammer and other machines conveniently grouped 
at one side. The shop shown in the photograph has a 
concrete floor. 

The kind of floor that should be laid in the forge shop 
is a question requiring careful study. The earth or 
cinder floor is safe, from the standpoint of fire risk, and 
while it is soft to stand upon, it is ruinous to the shoes, 
and the black dust constantly arising from the floor 
makes it impossible for the students to keep either their 
persons or clothing clean. If the floor is sprinkled to 
keep the dust down, it is just as hard on the shoes, and 
standing on the wet floor is a menace to health, espe- 
cially in cold weather. The concrete floor is safe from 
fire, but is hard to stand on. The wooden floor is more 
comfortable to the feet, but offers more danger from 
fire. In a fireproof building the wooden floor on top of 
a concrete floor offers less fire risk, and more comfort. 
In a wooden building it is a question between fire risk 
and comfort ; one must be sacrificed to obtain the other. 



~8 o a moo 




442 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



If a wooden floor is laid, it may be of surfaced 2" plank, 
overlaid with ■£■" tongue and groove flooring, so the 
surface can be relaid from time to time as it becomes 
worn and splintered. A more satisfactory wooden floor 
is made of redwood blocks laid with the wood fiber on 




Fig. 382. — Forge Shop. 

end, with a foundation of concrete or closely laid, 
seasoned and sized boards, well nailed to joist. 

The machine equipment for the forge shop should be : 



24 Forges in pairs 

24 Anvils — 125-lb 

1 Large forge 

1 Large anvil — 250-lb. . . . 

1 Power hammer 

1 Drill press — 22" back geared 

1 Dry 'emery grinder 12" to 14" 

r Gas hardening furnace . . . 

1 Air pump for furnace . . . 

1 Blower for forges 

1 Exhauster for forges .... 

1 Bar and bolt cutter .... 



' 10" X6' 


3' 


' 3"X2' 


0' 


' o"x 4 ' 


10' 


' 4"X2' 


6' 


' 6"X6' 


3' 


' o"X4' 


0' 


' 6"X2' 


6' 


' 9"X3' 


3' 


o"X2' 


0' 


' 6"X3' 


6' 


3"XS' 


3' 



Horse Power 



With each forge should be a set of the following tools : 

2 Set hammers (one large, one small). 
1 Hand hammer. 
1 Sledge, 5-lb. 
Sledge, 10-lb. 

1 Set flat tongs from \" to 1". 

1 Set square bit tongs f " to \\" . 

1 Pair chisel tongs for eye chisels. 

2 Pair tongs for hand chisels. 

3 Pair chain tongs. 

1 Hardie. 

4 Hot eye chisels. 

2 Cold eye chisels. 
1 Eye center punch. 
1 Poker. 
1 Small shovel. 

Hand punches to suit the work. 
1 Large flatter 3" face. 

1 Round edge flatter 2" X 13" face. 

The following tools should be provided, 
and kept in racks conveniently placed, 
for the use of all the students in common : 

2 Sets top swages from \" to \\" . 
2 Sets bottom swages from \" to 1". 
2 Sets top fullers from \" to 1". 
2 Sets bottom fullers from \" to 1" . 
2 Eye punches (one large and one small) . 
1 Set round punches from \" to 1". 
1 Set heading tools from \" to 1". 
1 Swage block. 
1 Coal shovel. 
1 Water bucket. 

The cast iron anvil base shown in 
Figure 381 is found more satisfactory 
than the wooden blocks frequently used, 
provided the forge shop has a very rigid 
floor. 

Several work benches should be placed 
in convenient positions with the black- 
smiths' vises on them. Six or eight vises 
will be ample for the class. Work benches 
should be against the wall and about two feet to two 
feet six inches in width. The length may vary to suit 
conditions in the shop. 

If the blower and exhauster listed above are provided 
with direct connected motors, they will require floor 
space about 3' 6 // X3 / 6" and 5' 3 // Xio / o" respectively. 
If twenty-five forges are installed, a blower with about a 
32" fan run at 1200 revolutions per minute, outlet about 
1 if " diameter, will furnish the necessary blast and require 
about 7! horse power. If the down draft system is 
used a steel plate exhauster with 50" fan at 900 R. P. M., 
24" inlet, will supply the draft and require about 15 
horse power. The fans may be run at higher speed and 
correspondingly reduced in size and horse power. If 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



443 





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DETAIL AI "A" DETAIL AT "6" 




•SIDE VIEW- -FRONT V1EV\T- 

> FOUNDATION" FPU A. POWER- HAMMER.- 

NO .SCALE 



WALTER A. TEWNEY . VOCATIONAL DIRECTOR. 
JOHN J. DONOVAN" , ARCHITECT 
GARLAND CALIFORNIA 

Fig. 383. 



COLLABORATORS 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the overhead exhaust system is used, a fan of much 
smaller capacity will serve, and if the smoke pipes extend 
from the hoods straight up through the roof the exhaust 
fan may be omitted altogether. The plan shows the 
fans for the forge blast and exhaust systems in a small 
separate room. This is preferable though not imperative. 

The sizes and arrangement of piping for the forge 
blast and exhaust are shown in Figure 380. The piping 
may be galvanized iron or drain pipe. If the forge shop 
floor is from three to five feet above the ground, iron 
pipe may be used and hung to the under side of the 
floor. If the floor is of earth or cinders, or of concrete 
and laid on the ground, then the pipe must be laid under- 
ground. If the piping is laid underground, it may be 
drain pipe, with joints thoroughly cemented, or it may 
be sheet metal bedded in concrete. Even if drain pipe 
is used it is better to bed it in concrete, as the settling 
of the earth is liable to crack the joints, and in rainy 
weather, if water soaks into the ground where the pipe 
is laid, it will fill the pipe and render it useless until it 
is pumped out. The concrete should be 4" thick 
around the pipe on all sides. 

If down draft forges are installed a double forge is 
recommended. They make a neat looking installation 
and save somewhat in floor space and in piping. The 
double forge requires a floor space 34"X7s" and should 
be placed eight or nine feet from center to center 
measured lengthwise of the rows as shown in Figure 380, 
leaving five or six feet clear working space between. 
When the forges are placed in two rows the center lines 
of the two rows should be about sixteen feet apart so as 
to leave ample room for a student using a sledge to swing 
it without interference. 

The forge shown in Figure 382 was designed by Mr. 
Frank Weaver, instructor in forge work in the Vocational 
High School, Oakland, California, and built by the 
students. This forge is not the down draft type. It 
has the mechanical blast and overhead exhaust. It 
may be used either with or without the exhaust fan. 
If in a one-story building, the exhaust pipe from each 
group of forges may be carried directly through the roof, 
and the natural draft will be found satisfactory without 
the fan. The exhaust pipe has a telescope joint, and 
the hoods are counterweighted so they can be raised or 
lowered. The cut shows a group of four forges built 
together. In this way they economize in floor space 
and in piping, are compact and neat in appearance, and 
easy to keep clean. The tuyeres are self-cleaning, by 
simply removing the cap on the pipe extending through 
the side of the forge and turning on the blast. Each 
group of four forges requires a floor space six feet by six 
feet and should have a clear space between groups of 
from four to five feet. 



These forges are the result of years of experience on 
the part of the designer both in commercial shops and 
in teaching, and are the most satisfactory of all the forges 
known to the writer. They are so simple that they can 
be built by the students of any manual training high 
school, as very few tools are needed in their construction. 

The large forge shown in Figure 380 near the power 
hammer is four feet in diameter, and the water and coal 
tanks extend 10", making the total floor space 48 // Xs8". 
A single forge of the type shown in Figure 382 may be 
substituted. 

There are several types of power hammers in use. 
For a well-equipped high school shop, a hammer that 
will work stock about four inches thick is preferable, 
though smaller sizes are frequently installed. A belt- 
driven trip hammer, that will work stock up to three 
and a half inches in thickness, requires a floor space 
36"XSi", also belting, pulleys, shafting, and some 
source of power. It is also furnished with individual 
motor. A self-contained power hammer operated by 
compressed air generated in the machine itself has been 
found very satisfactory. This hammer is furnished for 
either belt or individual motor drive. It requires floor 
space 2' 6" X 6' 3" and 7J horse power. A genuine 
steam hammer can only be installed if the school has a 
high pressure steam power plant in constant operation. 
A steam hammer may be operated by compressed air. 
This will require an air compressor, tank, and motor or 
other source of power. The floor space occupied by 
the machine is 2' io|"Xi' 9", and the tank, compressor, 
and motor will require about 4' o"Xi2' o". These 
latter may be placed overhead, upon a raised platform 
or gallery. 

A power hammer must have a special foundation. 
There are several ways of building it. One method is 
to make a solid concrete block considerably larger than 
the base of the hammer, set into the ground from one 
to three feet, depending on the height of the shop floor 
above ground. Pipes containing anchor bolts must 
be placed (so that the location of the bolts will coincide 
with the holes in the base of the machine) before the 
concrete is poured. Under the anvil the top surface 
of the concrete must be about eight inches lower than 
the general surface, so that a cushion of wood may be 
interposed. 

A better method (Figure 383) is to build a bottomless 
reinforced concrete box, sunk into the ground three feet 
or more, depending on the height of the shop floor 
above ground. The box should be filled to a depth of 
two or three feet with sand. On top of the sand, laid 
lengthwise of the box, are timbers of soft wood that will 
withstand decay. They should be eight or ten inches 
thick and should fill the box from end to end and from 



z o a i z z o z> 




446 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



side to side. On top of these are timbers 12" or 14" 
square stood on end, the top ends on a level with the 
top surface of the floor. The upright timbers should 
be bound together with iron bands and the machine 
bolted on as shown. The top surface of the timber 
foundation should be about three inches or four inches 
larger on all sides than the base of the machine, and 
the center of the anvil should be over the center of the 
sand box. 

Gas tool-hardening and tempering furnaces may be 
obtained in various sizes. A size that will be adequate 
for any work likely to be done in the school shop will 
occupy a floor space 2' o/ / X3 / 3" '■ It will require 
piping for gas and air, and an air pump either motor or 
belt-driven. The best arrangement is a rotary air pump 
with direct connected motor mounted on the same base, 
which may be placed in any out-of-the-way position, as 
overhead, or on a bracket on the wall, thus occupying 
no floor space otherwise needed. An air pump with 
1" outlet and 2 horse power motor will be adequate. 

A dry emery grinder carrying two wheels about 
2 // Xi4 // and mounted on an iron column will require 
about 1' 6"X2 r 3" floor space and a two horse power 
to run it. If an individual motor is used, a two horse 
power 1800 R. P. M. motor placed overhead and belted 
direct to the grinder will be satisfactory. 

A combination punch and shear, while not an absolute 
necessity, is a great convenience to the forge shop. A 
machine that will punch holes up to \" diameter in \" 
stock and cut rounds 1" diameter and flats 3 // Xf // is 
recommended. It will require a 2 feet by 3 feet floor 
space and is hand operated. 

If a central storeroom is not maintained in the school 
plant, in which supplies for all shops are stored to be 
issued as the instructor needs them, then a stock rack 
to carry bars of iron and steel will be needed in the forge 
shop itself. An adequate rack will occupy floor space 
4' o"X 8' o". A coal bin must be provided, in or 
adjoining the shop, large enough to contain two or three 
tons of coal. 

The Automobile Shop (Figure 384). — The drawing 
shows a shop about sixty by eighty feet. A smaller 
shop could be made to render good service, but would 
not be quite satisfactory. The writer has operated a 
school automobile shop fifty by sixty feet, in which 
practical repair work has been carried on continuously 
with considerable success ; but it was found, that with 
a class of fifteen to twenty students, there was insuffi- 
cient room, and the efficiency was reduced on this 
account. 

This shop should have a concrete floor, and should be 
as near fireproof as possible on account of the danger 
from oils and gasoline. There should be ample floor 



space so that a number of cars, say twelve or fifteen, 
can be taken into the shop at one time. 

There should be a pit five feet wide, five feet deep, and 
■twenty- four feet long conveniently located. A good 
plan is to have it about eleven feet from one wall, leaving 
room to pass around the end of a car when over the pit, 
and also within easy access of the machines and the tool 
room. A pit of the above dimensions will accommodate 
three cars at one time. The pit should have a cover of 
two inch planks, ten or twelve inches wide, set flush 
with the floor. The planks should all be separate from 
each other, and should fit closely so when they are all in 
place the pit is completely covered, and each should have 
a rope handle by which to lift it. There should be about 
three electric light outlets in the side wall of the pit, 
into which to plug light-cords, which will reach to any 
part of a machine which the workman desires to get at 
while in the pit. 

Another plan, and one which is in some ways prefer- 
able, is to have a raised platform about five feet above 
the floor, upon which the car can be placed while working 
underneath it. The platform is more convenient for 
the workman but requires more room, because of the 
space occupied by the incline upon which the car must 
be taken up and down. 

A small fireproof storeroom should be built at one side 
of the automobile shop in which to keep oils,- greases, 
and gasoline. It is advisable to purchase oils in barrel 
lots. If this is done they may be kept in the barrels, 
in which case a rack will be needed on which to set the 
barrels, elevating them sufficiently above the floor for 
convenience in drawing oil. A better way is to have 
metal tanks into which the oil may be transferred from 
the barrels in which it is received. In either case the 
door to this storeroom should be large enough for a 
barrel to be taken in and out easily. The larger supplies 
might also be kept in this room. 

There should also be a small room, fitted with drawers 
and shelves, for tools and small supplies, and also an 
office for the instructor. 

It is sometimes desirable to lift one end of a car from 
the floor and support it without putting jacks underneath. 
For this purpose it is convenient to have a one or two 
ton differential chain hoist attached to one of the roof 
trusses. Care should be taken to insure that the truss 
is strong enough to sustain the additional load. 

The list of equipment on page 449 includes the most 
essential items that should be found in the school shop. 

The garage press and the portable crane may be 
built by any school having a machine and forge shop. 

If the school has a separate electric shop, the charging 
of storage batteries may be done there, and the generator 
set omitted from the automobile shop equipment. If 




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THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 387. — Electrical Shop, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. 



1 Garage press 

1 Electric generator for storage batteries 

1 Air compressor and tank 3' 

1 Steam vulcanizing outfit 

1 2" X 1 2" Two-wheel emery grinder . 

1 14" X6' o" Engine lathe 

1 16" X8' o" Engine lathe 

1 20" Back-geared drill press .... 
1 One- to two-ton differential chain hoist 
attached to roof truss 

1 Portable crane with differential chai 
hoist 

1 Brazing outfit 

1 Acetylene welding outfit .... 

1 Electric welding outfit 



X3 o" 
"X3'6" 



>'6"X2'6' 
Portable 



Electric drill 

Electric auto starter 

Electric valve grinder .... 
Portable three-wheel jack . . . 

Auto jacks . 

Machinists' vises 

Machinists' hammers 

Gas soldering furnace .... 
Assorted sizes soldering coppers . 

Grease gun 

Sets solid open-end wrenches \" 
Complete set "Ford" wrenches . 
Assorted sizes monkey wrenches . 
Pyrene fire extinguishers . . . 
Screwdrivers, assorted sizes. . . 



Portable 

7'o"X S 'o" 

Portable 



installed in the auto shop it may be placed on a platform 
overhead or on a bracket on the wall so as to take no floor 
space. The same is true of the air compressor and tank. 
If a very extensive equipment is desired, more machines 
might be added. If no separate forge shop is maintained, 
at least one forge and anvil with set of tools should be 
mstalled in the auto shop, but if separate forge and 



machine shops are maintained, then the above makes a 
very good working equipment. 

The machines should be grouped together in one part 
of the shop where there is good light and out of the way 
of cars passing in and out. 

The Electrical Shop (Figure 385). — Where but one 
room can be given to electrical work, it should be large 



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H H H 

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THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



45i 



enough, and the equipment should be selected and 
arranged with a view to giving instruction in house 
wiring, telephone work, switchboard work, and con- 
struction and repair of electrical machines and ap- 
pliances. Such an arrangement is shown in the 
plan. 

To provide instruction in house wiring, a framework 
divided into three or four rooms should be built against 
one side or end of the shop, where it will cut off the least 
light. It should be built of full-sized framing lumber and 
put together in the same manner as a real building is 
constructed. It may be two stories in height. The 
students will use this for continuous practice in both 
knob and tube and conduit wiring, putting in and tak- 
ing out again different wiring arrangements. When, 
through cutting and boring holes, parts of the frame- 
work become unfit for further use, they will be removed 
and replaced by new pieces. 

It is a very good plan to make the electric shop the 
main distribution point for all the electrical service for 
the entire school plant. This arrangement gives the 
electric shop a large practical working switchboard 
providing both direct and alternating current for the 
students to observe, care for, and study, which is a valu- 
able piece of instructional apparatus, obtainable in no 
other way. The board should be guarded by an iron 
grillwork extending nearly or quite the full height of 
the board, and provided with doors at convenient inter- 
vals as indicated on the' plan. 

A rack for holding a quantity of iron conduit of 
different sizes, and up to twenty feet in length, may be 
placed in a convenient position in the shop. The one 
shown in the figure is in direct line with the outside doors, 
so the pipe can be brought straight into the rack without 
turning or carrying around or over machines or other 
equipment. Convenient to the rack should be benches 
containing pipe vises, where cutting and threading may 
be done. If the floor space is limited and a central store- 
room is provided for the whole plant, the conduit rack 
may be omitted, and the conduit brought from the 
storeroom as needed for -immediate use, or a limited 
quantity stored under the bench. 

A telephone switchboard may be installed in any 
convenient position, from which lines may be run 
to telephones stationed in various places about the 
room. 

Long work benches should be placed against the wall 
with large lock drawers built under them for pupils' use. 
Machinist vises should be fitted on these benches at 
about five or six foot intervals, also soldering stoves. A 
small gas pipe should be run along the wall at the back 
of the bench and the stoves permanently connected 
to it. 



A table for storage batteries should be conveniently 
placed, preferably away from other equipment. If 
space allows it is better to arrange a separate room for 
storage-battery work. The generator, if the floor space 
is needed, may be placed on an overhead support which 
can easily be arranged. 

In addition to the items above mentioned, the fol- 
lowing will be found a very satisfactory list of equip- 
ment : 



1 16" X8' o" Engine lathe 

2 14" X6' o" Engine lathe ...'.. 
2 12" X 4' o" Speed lathe with draw 

collets 

1 Universal milling machine . . . . 

1 Shaper 

1 20" Drill press, back geared . . . 
r Emery grinder, two 2" X12" wheels . 

1 Armature disk slotter 

1 Circular shear 

1 Armature coil winder 

1 Armature coil spreader 

1 Coil taping machine 

1 Magnet winder for large magnets . . 

2 Magnet winders for small magnets . 
1 5-k.w. generator set 



!'o"Xo'o" 

!'o"X7'o" 

2 'o"X 5 'o" 
!'o"Xs' o" 
>.' o"Xs' o" 
>.' o" X4' o" 
:'6"X2' 3 " 
>.' 8" X4' 6" 
:'6"x6'o" 
!'o"X2'6" 
:'o"X4'o" 



o"X2'o" 

o" X4' o" 



If no separate electrical laboratory is provided in the 
school, other generator sets of various types and sizes, 
also motors of various kinds, and one rotary converter 
should be installed in the electrical shop, for experimental 
purposes. It is better, however, to so arrange the work 
and equipment that the theoretical work and most of the 
electrical experiments can be performed in the electrical 
department of the science laboratory. The work in 
the electrical shop will then be almost wholly construc- 
tion, repair, and practice in the operations and pro- 
cesses of the electrician's trade, and the equipment 
should be that which is necessary to carry out such a 
course. 

A quantity of small tools must be provided, such as 
hack saws, pipe cutters and reamers, pipe dies, pipe 
wrenches, pliers, soldering coppers, drills, lathe tools, 
milling cutters, etc. 

A tool room must be provided and fitted with shelves, 
drawers, racks, etc., for keeping the small tools. 

The Printing Shop (Figure 388). — The shop and 
equipment shown in the plan will require, to handle the 
work properly, three instructors, a compositor to teach 
hand work and the fundamental principles and processes 
of the printing trade, a linotype operator to teach 
machine typesetting, and a pressman to teach presswork. 
This shop will accommodate thirty or more students at 
one time. 

The equipment consists of : 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 389. — Prlnti 



•, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



Poland, Architect. 



Equipment 


Floor Space 


Horse 
Power 




3' 0" X 3' 0" 
3'o"X S'o" 
4'o"x s'o" 
2' 0" X 4' 0" 
2'o"X 4 'o" 
3'o"X 3 'o" 

S'o"X 6'o" 
2' 0" X 3' 0" 
8' 9" X 13' 4" 

3'6"X 8' 9" 
4' 0" X 5' 0" 
3' 0" X 4' 0" 
6' 0" X 6' 0" 
3'o"X 6'o" 
3' 0" X 3' 0" 
3' 0" X 3' 0" 
3'o"X 3 'o" 

2' 0" X 3' 0" 
3'o"X 4 'o" 
3'o"X 4 'o" 
S'o"X 6'o" 
3'6"X 6'o" 
3'o"X 3 'o" 
3'o"X 3 'o" 
2' 8" X s' 0" 




4 Imposing tables with built-in units . . 
1 Imposing table with built-in units . . 

1 Proof press and stand 

1 Galley press and stand ...... 

1 Miller saw 


Hand 
Hand 


3 Typesetting machines, three-magazine 
type, with extra magazines and side 
magazine attachment 




1 Cylinder press 33" X46" bed . . . . 
1 Stock table for cylinder press with dry 


5 


4 10" X 15" Platen presses 

2 Stock tables with dry racks .... 

1 Folding machine 

1 Stock table for folding machine . . . 


f each 

2 




Foot 


1 Punch 


F t 


3 Tables for stitcher, punch and perfora- 








1 Mark-out table 

1 30" Paper cutter 

1 Table for cutter 


x * 


1 Remelting furnace for type metal . . 

2 Proof readers' tables 





Also a large assortment of type of different sizes, styles, 
and faces ; leads, slugs, rule, furniture, galleys, etc. 



The stock room should be separate from the print 
shop and accessible from the outside, so the stock can 
be delivered without taking it through the shop. 

Shelfing should be provided for storing stock in con- 
siderable quantities and of various sizes. It is desirable 
to have the paper cutter placed in the stock room if 
space will allow, also a stock table. 

A small separate room should be built for the furnace 
used in remelting the type metal. A gas outlet must 
be provided for supplying fuel to the furnace, and a 
vent pipe similar to a stove pipe for carrying off the 
fumes. A supply of iron molds for casting the ingots 
of type metal will be needed in this room, also a 
ladle. 

The space for proof reading and editorial work should 
either be partitioned off into a separate room or inclosed 
by a railing and provided with tables and chairs. 

Good light is needed for nearly all the printing work 
but especially for typesetting. Therefore the type cases 
and typesetting machines are placed as near the windows 
as possible. They should also be equipped with electric 
lights. The typesetting machines must be supplied 
with electric current for the motors which operate them- 
The melting pots on these machines may be heated by 
either gas or electricity. The latter is more convenient 
both to install and to operate. If gas is used for heating, 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



453 



a vent pipe, extending to the outside of the building, 
will be needed to carry off the fumes. 

The cylinder press is a very heavy machine and in 
any but a very substantial and rigidly constructed 
building will cause vibrations, which will be very disturb- 
ing to the work in this department. If the printing shop 
is on the ground floor this difficulty may be overcome 
by building a separate foundation of concrete for the 
press. This foundation need not cover the entire area 
occupied by the press. Since the press rests upon the 
foundation along the two outer edges only, it may take 
the form of a hollow rectangle a little longer and wider 
than the base of the press. A section through one side 
of this rectangle would be about twelve or fourteen 
inches wide at the top and twenty or twenty-two inches 
at the bottom, and two or more feet high, depending on 
the height of the floor above the ground. Anchor bolts 
should be set in the concrete on the two long sides of 
the rectangle to hold in place two-inch planks placed on 
top of the concrete. The top surface of the planks 
should be level with the top surface of the floor. While 
the press rests only on the two long sides of the rectangle, 
the two short sides are necessary to tie them together. 
The central space may be filled with earth tamped 
down and covered with a three or four inch layer of 
concrete, making the top surface even with the floor. 

Owing to the noise made by the presses it is an advan- 
tage to have the press and composing rooms separated 
by a comparatively soundproof partition. 

In the plan a partition is shown, the upper part of 
which is double glass. A dead air space about four 
inches thick between the two thicknesses of glass helps 
to deaden the sound while admitting more light to the 
press room, and permitting a view of both rooms from 
either one of them, which is an advantage in super- 
vision. The glass should be set in hinged sashes, so 
that both sides may be easily cleaned. 

The school print shop will easily pay for itself by the 
output of work for the school system. The printing 
of school papers, a great variety of standard and special 
forms, reports, pamphlets and so forth both for the 
schools and the administrative offices will furnish valu- 
able material for teaching purposes and also enable the 
print shop to become practically self-supporting, without 
taking in any commercial work from outside of the 
school system. 

The Plumbing Shop (Figure 390). — The room and 
equipment here illustrated provide facilities for teaching 
the various branches of the plumbing trade in the 
modern high school. 

On one side of the shop are five large double benches 
at which twenty to twenty-five students can work. 
These benches are provided with gas stoves and solder 



pots, and on the end of each bench is a pipe vise. There 
will be taught the fundamental principles and opera- 
tions, such as cutting and threading small pipe by hand, 
making sheet lead seams ; overcast and cup joints ; 
wiping half inch, five-eighths inch, and two-inch round 
and branch joints, horizontal, upright, and vertical ; 
wiping stopcock on lead pipe ; flange joints ; wiping 
small and large nipples to lead pipe ; wiping two-inch 
and four-inch ferrules to lead pipe ; wiping short bends 
with ferrules ; half-S traps; S traps, etc., etc. 

On the opposite side of the shop is shown the provi- 
sion for instruction in setting up and connecting various 
plumbing fixtures. This consists of a framework divided 
into several rooms in which the students will practice 
installing sinks, lavatories, boilers, hot-water tanks, 
laundry trays, laundry stoves and heaters, urinals, 
closets, bath tubs, kitchen ranges, instantaneous water 
heaters, radiators, showers, gas fitting, and gas fixtures. 
This framework is two stories in height so as to give 
more space for students to work. 

Another portion of the shop is devoted to practice in 
steam fitting, and still another to work on heavy soil 
and drain pipe, automatic cellar drainers, trapping and 
venting drain, soil and waste pipes, etc. 

The equipment consists of : 

Six Benches, 3' o"Xi6' o". 

One Pipe-threading machine, 1" to 4" pipe, Floor Space, 
4' 4 "X7'o", H. P., 3. 

Individual sets of tools, comprising ladles, shave hooks, turn 
pins, bending pins, rasps, compasses, pliers, tap borers and 
dressers. 

Equipment for general shop use comprises pipe cutters, 
pipe tongs and wrenches, pipe reamers, bending springs, 
calking irons, hammers, compass saws, blow torches, 
soldering coppers, levels, etc. 

Pipe racks are provided for storing both long and 
short lengths of pipe of various sizes and kinds. This 
rack is placed so pipe can be unloaded into it directly 
from the delivery wagon outside. Bins for pipe fittings 
of all kinds are also provided. 

Ventilating fans should be installed in this shop to 
carry off the lead fumes and keep the air pure. 

The Sheet Metal Shop (Figure 392). — The plan shows 
an ideal arrangement for a sheet metal shop for instruc- 
tion purposes. Long benches are provided against the 
walls under the windows, insuring good light. A gas 
pipe should be run along the back of these benches, to 
which are connected gas soldering stoves. There should 
be enough of these so that each student may have one. 
On these benches the preliminary work of the student, 
such as learning to solder, and practice work in laying 
out, cutting, and making various articles in sheet metal, 
will be done. Under these benches should be a set of 



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456 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



lock drawers, a separate drawer being provided for each 
student in which to keep his individual set of tools and 
small pieces of work. 

Next to these benches on either side of the shop is a 
row of four large benches four by eight feet in size. On 
these benches will be placed the various hand machines 
and tools which will be used in cutting, forming, seaming, 
etc., such as rolls, turning, wiring, burring, grooving, 
beading, edging, crimping and seaming machines, and 
stakes of various kinds. 

In the center of the room is one (or more) large table 
or bench on which to lay out large jobs, and ample 
floor space is left for erecting large pieces of work. 

A storage rack for large sheets of metal is provided, 
conveniently placed at one end of the shop. 

The equipment for this shop consists of : 

One Hand punch, capacity No. 20 gauge iron. 

One Squaring shear, 32" to 40". 

One Ring and circular shear to cut 22" circle. 

One Folding machine, 20". 

One Combination brake and folder, 42". 

One Forming machine, slip roll pattern, 31". 

One Groover, 30". 

One Turning machine, capacity 3 %" to \" wire. 

One Wiring machine, capacity //' to T \" wire. 

One Burring machine, capacity \" . 

One Setting down machine, capacity |" seams. 

One Elbow edging machine, No. 1 faces, 2\" rolls. 

Extra pair No. 3 faces for above. 

Extra pair No. 4 faces for above. 
One Beading machine, 1 £f " rolls. 
One Crimping machine, if". 
One Seaming machine/capacity is§". 
One Samson punch. 

One Mandrel stake, solid, 341", hollow, 40". 
One Beakhorn stake, round end 16^", flat end 20". 
One Blowhorn stake, large end 9", small end 18". 
One Double seaming stake, large end 17", small end 12". 
One Needlecase stake, round end io|", flat end 8". 
One Hatchet stake, length 13". 
One Hatchet stake, length 11". 
One Hatchet stake, length 9". 
One Bevel edge square stake, 2%" X4I". 
One Double seaming stake with 4 heads. 
One Round head stake, 12I" long. 
One Bench plate. 
Two Pairs bench shears. 
Twenty-two Gas furnaces, sheet iron top, brick lined. 

The small machines listed above are all hand oper- 
ated, and will be placed on the large work benches 
shown on the floor plan ; therefore, as they will require 
no additional floor space, these sizes are not recorded in 
the list. 

In the tool room, there should be an assortment of 
extra tools, such as snips, riveting hammers, setting 
hammers, raising hammers, cutting nippers, grooving 



tools, rivet sets, prick punches, solid punches, and 
hollow punches, all of various sizes, wire gauges, etc. ' 
Each student should have a set of tools consisting of 

One Mallet. 

One Scratch awl. 

One Rule. 

One Pair snips. 

One Two-pound soldering copper. 

One Hammer. 

A sheet metal shop equipped with up-to-date machines 
and tools for handling good-sized jobs can find a large 
amount of work in the school system itself. 

Any large school system is constantly needing sheet 
metal work of various kinds either for repairs or for new 
construction. 

Work of this kind which has a real practical value is 
more interesting to students and has a far greater instruc- 
tional value than mere practice or exercise work. There- 
fore the equipment of this, as of all the other high school 
shops, should be such as is found in commercial shops. 

The Cabinet Shop (Figure 394). — The bench equip- 
ment would be the same as that described for the pattern 
shop. The tools furnished with each bench would be 
the same, except there would be no lathe tools. Several 
wooden saw horses, also a supply of wooden hand 
clamps, iron " C " clamps, and long bar clamps of 
different sizes should be provided. Also a supply of 
extra tools to be kept in the tool room, such as steel 
squares, extra bitts and ratchet braces, extra chisels, 
and gouges, hand saws both cross cut and rip, miter box 
and saw, special planes, gauges, scrapers, wood files, 
file cards, draw knives, carving tools, pliers, large 
dividers, inside and outside calipers of different sizes, 
several sets of lathe tools, etc., etc. 

The machinery equipment for this shop should con- 
sist of : 



Machine 


Floor Space 


Horse 
Power 


i 16" or 18" Universal circular saw . . 
1 16" Swing cut-off saw with table . . . 


4' S"X 5' °" 
4' 3 "Xi8'o" 

to 24' 0" 
3' 6"X 6' 2" 
6' 3" X 7' 3" 
2' 8" X 7' 0" 
4' 8" X 8' 0" 
3' 0" X 6' 6" 
6' o"Xis'o" 

to 24' 0" 
2' o"x 3' 6" 
1' 10" X 10' 6" 
2' o"X 5' 2" 
2' 2 "X 4'o" 


5 
3 

S 

is 

5 
5 
3 

5 

i 

3 

Hand 


1 30" Cabinet planer 

1 16" Hand planer or jointer 


1 Hollow chisel mortiser 


1 4"X36" Grindstone 

1 i6"Xio' 0" Lathe 

1 12" X 5' 0" Lathe 

1 Universal wood trimmer 



The saws, planers, tenoner, and sander should have a 
shaving exhaust system similar to those described in the 
equipment for the pattern shop. There should also be 
safety guards for all machines. 



"s- .' o a i ^ ."m . o ' o 




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t O ff I TI ^8 O O 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



461 




Fig. 396. — Manual Training Room, Clawson ] 

A steam-jacketed glue pot, heated by gas or electricity, 
should be provided, also a warming box for heating stock 
to be glued. The latter should be about 4' X 4' X 8' inside 
and may be built by students. It consists of a frame- 
work of 3 ,/ X4 // material mortised and tenoned together, 
boarded with i"X4" tongue and groove lumber, lined 
with asbestos and then with galvanized iron. The bottom 
is covered with one-inch steam pipes which are connected 
to a gas-operated steam generator. (See Figure 397.) If 
the building is steam heated, the warming box should also 
be connected to the main steam boiler, so as to utiliez 
the steam from the heating system when it is in operation. 

Adjoining the cabinet shop should be a finishing room 
about 20X24 feet, which can be heated to the proper 
temperature and closed against dust, when staining, 
varnishing and polishing furniture. A small office for 
the instructor about 8X10 feet is needed, also a tool 
and supply room about 10X15 feet, where extra tools 
and small supplies like screws, nails, glue, sandpaper, etc., 
are kept. In the tool room should be shelving and one 
or more cabinets similar to Figure 398. 



A lumber room about 20X24 feet is needed. If 
possible it should be so located that lumber wagons can 
drive directly up to it. It should have racks built across 
it and doors all across the two ends (see Figure 394), 
so that lumber can be delivered directly off the wagon 
into one end of the lumber room and taken straight out 
of the other end into the shop, thus avoiding rehandling. 
Where there are several woodworking shops in the same 
school, one lumber room can sometimes be placed so as 
to serve two or more of them. 

Figure 394 shows the arrangement of equipment on 
the floor, the benches near the windows to get the best 
light, leaving a large space in the center of the room for 
assembling work. Working space between benches 
should be not less than 3' 6" from side to side and 4' 6" 
from end to end. The machines are arranged at one 
end of the room with ample working space around them. 
The space between machines should seldom be less than 
5 feet, and the planer, jointer and circular saw should be 
so placed that long lumber can be machined on them 
without interference. School shops are sometimes so 



462 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 397. — Warming Box .\xx> Steam Genteratoi 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



463 



planned that the woodworking machines are placed in 
a separate room called the mill room. The writer does 
not approve of this plan, because dangerous machinery 
should always be under the eye of the instructor, and 
if in a separate room, this will be impossible. 

The Carpentry Shop (Figure 399). — Unless the cabinet 
shop is a much larger room than that shown in Figure 
394, the carpentry shop should be a 
separate room. The equipment would 
be much more simple and inexpensive 
than that described for the other wood- 
working shops. No machinery would 
be needed, as the joinery and interior 
finish would come under the head of 
mill cabinet work, and would be gotten 
out in the cabinet shop. There should 
be several carpenters' benches against 
the walls, leaving nearly the whole floor 
space for the erecting of models in 
carpentry, sections, and complete frames 
of buildings at a reduced scale, also full 
size sections of buildings, roof and other 
framing, stair work, and so forth, re- 
quiring a large floor space. 

Instead of tool drawers in the benches, 
each student should have a locked tool 
box (such as a carpenter carries on to 
the building with him) and the usual kit of carpenters' 
tools. These would be : 

Steel square. 

Cross cut saw. 

Rip saw. 

Hammer. 

Level. 

Plumb bob and line. 

Hatchet. 

Try square. 

Bevel. 

Drawknife. 

Jack plane. 

Smooth plane. 

Block plane. 

Bit brace. 

Set of bits. 

Extra and special tools would be kept in the tool room. 
A number of sawhorses should be furnished. The 
carpenter's bench would be larger and of a different 
construction from that in the other woodworking shops. 

An office and tool room will be needed as in the other 
shops, and against one wall should be a set of lockers in 
which the students could lock up their tool boxes when 
not using them. 

Since this shop joins the cabinet shop, the lumber for 
both might be kept in the cabinet shop lumber room 



and brought into the carpentry shop on trucks provided 
for that purpose. A small quantity might also be 
stacked in racks against the wall, as indicated on the 
plan. 

The Exhibit Room (Figure 400) . — Just as a photo- 
graph or drawing will convey certain kinds of informa- 
tion at a glance more satisfactorily than can be gathered 





Notes: 

4-5 Drawers to /if opening si''44"'/Ji" 
Ffi/sn fronfe; % r fronts ■+ 6acks ; '/i' sides 
oncf -vs" Soffoms 
4-5 Me tot drawer pc/t/s. 
3 Drawers tof/t open/np z--Hk"x 6"x /s*ir 
f/ast? fronts , drawers oat of -W stocA. 
6 Pressed Jletat drawer pat/s. 
Vert/Cat 3u6drv/d/ng members to 6e 
gained /n to hor/zontai mem6ers '3' 



TOOL &OOM. SUPPLY CA.&IMET • 

■SCALE 
Fig. 3q8. 

from pages of printed matter, so an exhibit of work 
done in the industrial departments of a high school will 
convey, to the mind of the interested parent or student, 
valuable information as to the scope and character of 
the courses, more quickly and satisfactorily than any 
other means. If, therefore, conditions will admit of it, 
an exhibit room should be provided as an important 
feature of the school plant. It should be prominently 
located, if possible, on the street side of the building 
(with an entrance from the street), so as to be a standing 
advertisement to passers-by, constantly drawing the 
attention of the public to the work of the school. The 
room should be of generous size, especially if the school 
be large and contain many industrial departments, so 
that each department may have its own space, large 
enough to admit of a fairly comprehensive exhibit. 
There should be ample light, both natural and artificial. 
The artificial lighting will need to be planned with special 
reference to each part of the exhibit, and the manner in 
which the exhibit is arranged, so as to show it to the best 
advantage. 

The method of arranging the exhibits will vary with 
the character of the material displayed. Some, as, for 
example, pieces of furniture or machines, will require 
floor space only, others will require tables or shelves. 
Again, work like millinery or dressmaking should be 



r a o d i n o o 




THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



465 



shown in glass cases, while drawings and some other 
articles should be arranged upon walls or upon display ers, 
having large vertical leaves. 

The Central Storeroom (Figure 400). — -In a large 
plant, like the one here discussed, large quantities of 
supplies are annually purchased and distributed to vari- 
ous departments. In any well-managed institution, 
transactions of such magnitude must be systematically 
checked and recorded. In the school plant this can be 
best accomplished by having a central storeroom, where 
all supplies, of every kind, whether for academic or 
industrial departments, are delivered. This room should 
be located so that teams can drive up to it and deliver 
all supplies directly from the wagon, and doors of ample 
size should be provided for admitting readily large 
crates or packages. 

An exception should be made of wood, coal, or fuel 
oil for heating the school plant, and of blacksmith coal 
for the forge shop. Wood and coal should be delivered 
and stored near where they will be used. Fuel oil should 
be stored in tanks under the sidewalk and piped to the 
furnaces. 

Lumber for the carpentry, cabinet, or pattern shops 
might be kept in special storerooms adjoining the shops 
in which it is to be used. But if the central storeroom 
can be made large enough, and located within easy access 
of the wood shops, it is better to have the lumber stored 
there and delivered to the shops as needed. The supply 
room adjoining each shop could then be very small, 
holding only a supply for immediate use, or it could be 
omitted altogether. 

Supplies should be requisitioned by the different 
departments as needed. They should be issued by the 
storeroom clerk, and charged to the department receiving 
them. 

This room should be provided with shelves of various 
widths, wide shelves for holding paper stock for the print 
shop, and narrower ones for such other supplies as are 
best kept on shelves. There should be bins for other 
types of supplies such as plumbing fittings, etc., racks for 
steel and iron, both sheets, bars and pipe, and drawers for 
small supplies such as nuts, machine screws, cabinet- 
makers' hardware, etc. The room should be fireproof, 
and metal tanks provided for storing oils and gasoline. 

A power hack saw should be placed in this room, also 
a platform scale, so that orders for steel or iron from the 
shops can be cut to size, and the quantity recorded 
exactly. 

In addition to the book accounts, as a means of 
facilitating stock taking, a manila tag should be attached 
to each bin, drawer, rack, or shelf, one for each kind of 
material kept in stock. On the tag should be entered 
the quantity of materials on hand. As material is 



drawn from this supply the quantity drawn each time 
should be entered on the tag and the balance brought 
down ; thus the tag shows at all times the quantity of 
stock on hand. The writer has operated such a store- 
room in connection with his school and found it very 
satisfactory. 

If the shops are built as a separate structure, as shown 
in these plans, then a main office for the shop building, 
centrally located, should be provided for the head of 
the industrial arts department. This office should be 
connected by telephone with all the shops, and also with 
the principal's office and the outside. The central 
office in this plan is shown adjoining the lecture and 
exhibit rooms. 

The Intermediate or Junior High School Shops.— One 
of the most important developments in recent educa- 
tional policy is the intermediate school. Comprising the 
seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, it forms the connect- 
ing link between the elementary and high schools, and 
should partake of the character of both. 

In the elementary school the pupil lays his educational 
foundation in a study of the fundamentals. In the high 
school he begins to specialize, and his election of courses 
should be determined largely by life career motives. 
The intermediate school should provide means for a 
gradual transition from elementary to high school 
methods. It should offer an opportunity for the student 
to try many different kinds of work, both academic 
and industrial or vocational, to discover his likes and 
dislikes, his aptitudes and limitations, that he may more 
intelligently choose his high school course. Vocational 
guidance should be commenced in the intermediate 
school. And if the student does not continue through 
the high school, there is even greater need for the widest 
opportunity for self-analysis and discovery, for investiga- 
tion and experimentation, as an aid to choosing a voca- 
tion or life career. Therefore, on the industrial side, 
the intermediate school should provide equipment that 
will enable the student to gain some knowledge of the 
general characteristics and fundamental processes of a 
number of occupations, at least sufficient to help him 
decide whether he would like any particular occupation, 
or is adapted to it. 

Since the students will not specialize, but will investi- 
gate many lines of work in this school, the equipment 
will be neither as expensive nor as complete as in the 
high school. It is much better to have simple equip- 
ments for many different kinds of work than to have 
one or two shops expensively equipped. The general 
principles of shop planning laid down for high schools, 
and the data on equipment, floor space, power, etc., 
already given, are easily adaptable to the planning 
of shops for the intermediate school. In a small 



THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS DEPARTMENT 



467 



intermediate school where but one shop for boys' work is 
provided, it should be a general utility shop. One large 
shop could be so equipped that introductory work in 
carpentry, cabinetmaking, pattern making, electrical 
work, sheet metal work, plumbing, machine shop work, 
and forging can be given. Twenty-five to thirty work 
benches similar to those described for the pattern or 
cabinet shops should be furnished. By making a slight 
change in the benches so that a woodworking vise may 
be placed on one side and a machinist vise on the other, 
these could be used for all purposes for which a bench 
is needed. Or, if preferred, part of the benches could 
be equipped with woodworking vises and the rest with 
machinist vises. 

In addition to benches and hand tools, four to six 
wood-turning lathes, a circular saw, band saw, planer, 
and a grindstone will give sufficient woodworking 
equipment for doing the three lines of wood work men- 
tioned above. By selecting a very moderate amount 
of equipment from the list given under " Sheet Metal 
Shop," including a few gas soldering stoves, soldering 
coppers, snips, tinners, rolls, turning, wiring, setting 
down, and burring machines, several stakes, etc., a 
beginning course in sheet metal work can be given. The 
same suggestion applies to electrical work and plumbing. 

One or more forges of the hand blower type, two or 
three screw-cutting engine lathes about nine-inch to 
fourteen-inch swing, a small shaper, a drill press, an 
emery grinder, and small hand milling machine with 
the necessary hand tools will provide for an introductory 
course in forging and machine shop work. 

In the larger intermediate school, more shops should 
be provided, and additional equipment for each of them. 
For example, all the woodworking equipment in one 
shop, the sheet metal and plumbing in one, and forging 
and machine shop work in another. In a very large 
intermediate school this idea might be extended to the 
point of providing a separate shop and more extensive 
equipment for each kind of work ; however, the equip- 
ment should be more simple and less expensive than in 
the high school shops. 

A printing shop is very desirable in the intermediate 
school, largely for its educational value, it being a great 



aid to teaching English. Two or three platen presses } 
sizes eight by twelve to ten by fifteen inches, preferably 
motor-driven, two or three imposing stones, eight or 
ten type cases with a good assortment of type, a paper 
cutter hand-operated, a stapling machine, proof press, 
and other small accessories should be provided. 

In a word, the industrial department in an inter- 
mediate school should be planned and equipped for 
introductory work only, not to give a vocational course, 
but to enable the student to decide whether he wants 
to go on to the high school and take a vocational course, 
or whether he is better adapted to some line of work 
outside the industrial field, or if compelled to leave school 
during his intermediate course to earn his living, to en- 
able him to choose intelligently the occupation he will 
enter. 

Conclusion. — ■ This chapter has been written with a 
view of giving accurate, usable data regarding the equip- 
ment needed for the various kinds of shop work most 
commonly taught in manual training and technical 
schools, its general arrangement in the shops for efficient 
operation, the floor space required for each machine 
and the horse power required to run it. So far as known, 
this detailed information has never before been brought 
together in compact form, and could only be obtained 
by consulting a large number of catalogues and refer- 
ence books, or by extensive correspondence with dealers. 
Definite information on these matters is the first require- 
ment on the part of the technical school director or 
instructor who is planning to introduce industrial or 
vocational courses, or of the architect who is designing 
rooms or buildings for these courses. 

The information here given has been gathered by the 
writer during years of experience in planning, equipping, 
and managing industrial schools, and he believes it will 
be found reliable. From the data given in this chapter, 
school men or architects should be able to make selec- 
tions and arrangements that will meet the requirements 
for shops or manual training rooms in schools of all sizes 
and under all conditions, from the small intermediate 
school having one general utility shop to the large 
cosmopolitan high school offering trade and technical 
instruction in many different vocations. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 

By Agnes Fay Morgan, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Household Science, University of California 

Part I : Statement of the Problem. The Development of Home Economics Education. The New Meaning of Home Economics 
Education. Trade Education Growing out of the Domestic Arts. General Education Through Domestic Applications. Necessary 
Change in the Teaching of Home Economics. 

Part II : Equipment of the Elementary and Secondary Schools for Instruction in Home Economics. Location and Number of 
Rooms. The Cooking Unit. The Serving Unit. The Laundry Unit. The Housekeeping and Home Nursing Unit. The Clothing 
Unit. 

East, was the result of the provisions of the Morrill Act. 1 
Since the land-grant colleges, created by this act, were 
open to women students, some provision had to be made 
for their peculiar interests, and as a result the Colleges 
of Agriculture of Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, and other 
middle western states began about the same time to 
offer courses in household science, domestic science, or 
domestic economy, as the subject was variously called. 
The students enrolled in the classes were in general better 
prepared for possible mental as well as manual develop- 
ment of the subject than those in the eastern cooking 
schools. The presence of a staff of chemists, physicists, 
physiologists, and other scientists in the agricultural 
colleges made natural the attempt to correlate the 
cooking or food work, as it was now called, with the al- 
ready established courses in the science departments. 
That this correlation was and still is imperfectly es- 
tablished detracts not at all from the fundamental 
importance and value of this step. 2 

The question of the educational as well as utilitarian 
value of instruction in the manipulation of foods, of 
clothing construction, and housing problems has been 
much discussed among educators, and such instruction 
has been admitted to the schools upon the same basis 
as the training in the manual trades for boys. There 
has been claimed, however, a peculiar universality for 
the domestic problem in the lives of women, as dis- 
tinguished from the specialization in trades and pro- 
fessions by men. It is in acknowledgment of this claim 
that training for the home has been so readily and 
generally introduced into the public grade and high 
school curricula. But the status of women as wage 
earners, as well as the machinery of the home itself, 



Statement of the Problem. — The problem of planning 
and equipping laboratories for household science classes 
in the lower schools is complicated by the changing 
character of the material presented under this name. 
It may be too soon to venture any suggestions as to 
standard rooms for this work, certainly too soon to 
assume that the last word can be said in the matter. 
Since the mobility of the subject inheres not only in 
the actual material presented but in the ideals set up 
from time to time as representing the goals to be attained 
by such instruction, the character of equipment used 
must likewise remain somewhat uncertain. 

The Development of Home Economics Education. — If 
one follows briefly the history of the home economics 
education movement it is possible to see the reason for 
this state of change. In the beginning, perhaps as 
early as 1870, there were developing two separate move- 
ments for women's education in matters pertaining to 
the home. The one in the East, begun by the Woman's 
Education Association in Boston, consisted of a series 
of excellent cooking schools, of which the Boston Cook- 
ing School is the best known. Under such leaders as 
Miss Parloa, Mrs. Rorer, Mrs. Lincoln, Miss Farmer, 
these schools undertook to train as skilled cooks any 
pupils, both adults and children, who came to them. These 
schools lasted about twenty-five years, and accomplished 
much in the way of introduction to the establishment of 
cooking as a part of the public school instruction for 
girls. 

The movement in the West, inaugurated by the agri- 
cultural colleges at about the same time as that in the 



1 In 1862 Congress passed a bill, often called the Morrill Act, granting 30,000 acres of land to each state for each seratcr and representative, for 
the maintenance of agricultural schools. The state colleges of agriculture have developed out of these land-grant schcols. 

2 For further history of this development see The Heme Economics Movement, by I. Bevier and S. Usher, Whitcomb and Barrows, 1906. 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



469 



has been rapidly changing in the last decade. Edu- 
cation for trades and professions must now be provided 
for girls as well as for boys, and the real usefulness of 
the technique and the culture conveyed under the name 
of home economics must be constantly proved anew. 

The New Meaning of Home Economics Education. — 
Out of the critical consideration of the changing American 
home has come gradually, and as yet vaguely, a new 
twofold interpretation of domestic education. On the 
one hand has developed the vocational, practical train- 
ing in the doing of the daily manual tasks about the 
home, an interpretation favored by the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education and of particular applica- 
bility to girls of the junior high school age, and to those 
enrolled in continuation and special classes. This 
type of education has been called by Snedden 1 " home- 
making " as contrasted with " household arts," a 
cultural course. Such a term can hardly be accepted 
as final, for the word home connotes all the intangible 
social and spiritual relations of the family, preparation 
for which is dependent upon fundamental education, 
as well as the physical surroundings and service of the 
house. The type of domestic education demanded by 
the Smith-Hughes Act as interpreted by the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education 2 largely excludes the 
study of anything but the latter. 

Trade Education Growing Out of the Domestic Arts. — 
Out of this training there is emerging a definite body of 
trade or industrial preparation, since the industries 
which have left the home may still be followed most 
easily by girls trained in the so-called domestic arts. 
We have thus the anomaly of home economics educa- 
tion leading to wage earning outside the home. Such 
trades are, of course, chiefly concerned with garment 
and hat making or selling ; the cooking and serving of 
food; the decoration, cleaning, and managing of the 
house; laundering; and care of children and the sick. 
Courses leading to skill in any of these occupations may 
well be termed vocational. Whether a general smatter- 
ing of all of them may very long be considered vocational 
is questionable, for even where paid employees take over 
the labor in the modern home the trend of such service 
is still toward specialization in a few of the duties in- 
volved. The view that any large number of young girls 
may choose an education which shall fit them only for 
performing the physical tasks and for making the ma- 
terial choices involved in the conducting of their own 
future households, is surely no longer tenable. The 
conclusion from these assumptions would seem to be 
that the technical training for household tasks should 
discard much of its present amateur character and take 



on an intensive professional attitude with definite out- 
look toward permanent and paid occupations. 

General Education through Domestic Applications. — 
The second interpretation now read into home economics 
is that of education in economics, science, and art con- 
veyed to young students through applications inevitably 
met in the American home. It is increasingly apparent 
that such education properly modified should be avail- 
able to boys as well as to girls. 

The new conception of the order in which information, 
perception, and reasoning may be used in education 
makes it possible to consider the teaching of chemistry 
at least partly through food classifications, cleaning, 
painting, dyeing; physics through cooking, machines, 
ventilation, lighting, heating ; design through carpets, 
costumes, wall-paper ; accounting through the household 
budget. Of course, home economics subjects furnish 
only one of many avenues of instruction of this type, 
hygiene, physical education, dramatics, shop and trade 
training, and agriculture being some of the others. 

Whether the household applications be considered a 
vehicle for the teaching of the formal sciences and 
arts, or these formal subjects the subordinated means 
of explanation of everyday phenomena, the fact remains 
that modern education finds it possible and profitable 
to combine these two formerly unrelated fields. As 
one result, the appliances and technique formerly 
grudgingly allowed' a small share of school time as a 
concession to future practical household needs, may 
now be welcomed as furnishing avenues of interest for 
academic instruction. 

If these avenues are to lead to valuable training for 
citizenship and more abundant life, the teachers of 
household subjects must present broader and deeper 
preparation in those subjects fundamental to the ap- 
plications taught than was formerly the rule. Technique 
in cooking, laundering, and sewing must surely become 
subordinate to explanation in terms which shall con- 
nect each operation with the general law which it is 
used to illustrate. The " why " instead of the " how " 
of the phenomena of everyday life would thus become 
the main objective of the teacher of home economics. 

Necessary Change in the Teaching of Home Econom- 
ics. — This latter conception of the function of education 
for the home would seem to be emerging as the permanent 
phase into which the movement can be expected to 
develop. It is founded upon no assumption as to the 
status of the home, nor as to the duties of women in 
society, and may therefore be safely embedded in a 
sternly critical and utilitarian scheme of general educa- 
tion. That the teaching of the subject must be radically 



1 Snedden — Problems of Secondary Education, 191 7, Chapter 23. 

2 Federal Board for Vocationa 1 Education, Bulletin No. 28, pages 23 to 25, 191J 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



altered in order to fit into such a scheme is readily ad- 
mitted, and even more apparent, therefore, is the need 
for a sweeping change in the training of teachers for 
the primary and secondary grades. Such a change 
would need to be constantly directed toward the elimi- 
nation of the amateurish and sentimental attitude of 
mind of these teachers, away from the limitations of home 
and housewife's conditions for every operation, and 
toward professional, commercial, and scientific, or co- 
operative enterprises. 

If home economics education is to be either vocational 
in the specialized sense, or cultural in the sense that it 
may be used as a pedagogical device for the imparting 
of general basic information as well as for illustration 
of the scientific method, two distinct criteria must be 
applied to the type of equipment chosen for the schools 
in which such instruction is to be given. Practical 
equipment of the same size and kind in use. in the com- 
munity should be installed for the former purpose, and 
a variety of scientific and simplified equipment for the 
latter. The elementary schools should, in general, 
be provided generously with practical appliances, the 
intermediate and secondary schools should have both 
types, since only in the higher grades can the more 
complicated phenomena of life be explained at all by 
concrete domestic problems. 

PART II 

Equipment of the Elementary and Secondary Schools 
for Instruction in Home Economics. — It is now the 

general practice to provide space for the teaching of 
home economics subjects in connecting rooms arranged 
more or less in the order of an apartment or house. 
Five units may be distinguished in this space: (i) the 
cooking unit; (2) the serving unit ; (3) the laundry unit ; 
(4) the sewing unit ; (5) the home nursing and house- 
keeping unit. Of these only the cooking and sewing 
units are usually considered indispensable, and are 
first supplied, the serving, laundry, and housekeeping 
units being most frequently added in the order named. 
When the space provided is small, a single room may be 
utilized for instruction in all the varieties of home 
economics subjects by means of suitable portable equip- 
ment, or two rooms may be made to answer all purposes 
adequately. 

Location and Number of Rooms. — Formerly the 
domestic science rooms were often devised at the last 
minute in both new and old school buildings out of 
left-over basement space. Poor lighting, ventilation, 
and heating were usually the result, and cooking odors 
pervading the whole building added to the general dis- 
satisfaction. This unfortunate placing is less often en- 
countered of late years. 



The home economics rooms might well occupy a 
separate building or a separate wing from the rest of 
the school. If this is impossible the cooking-room should 
be placed either on the first or second floor, or near 
the lunchroom, for convenience in delivery of supplies. 
If all home economics instruction can be assembled 
in a separate building, either in the form of a cottage 
or apartment, a certain unity and concentration is 
gained, the value of which can hardly be overestimated. 
Lessons learned in physical surroundings not unlike 
those of the homes of the children are more apt to be 
carried over into immediate home life than if the usual 
school environment is used. At the same time care 
must be taken that home economics lessons shall not be 
so dissociated from the ordinary school atmosphere as 
to attain a separated and sometimes an inferior rating 
in the pupil's mind. This danger can, however, be 
obviated only by the diligent care and improved training 
of the home economics teacher. 

The same advantage presented by the detached 
building may be obtained by the use of a separate wing 
for these rooms. Such a wing may be planned for either 
one or two floors ; the cooking, serving, and laundry 
units on one floor, if necessary ; and the sewing and 
housekeeping units on the other. If the apartment 
plan be used it is usually found convenient and economi- 
cal to provide the following rooms, as illustrated in 
Figures 401 and 402 : (1) A room of generous size, at 
least 480 square feet, which may be used as a living- 
room for the teaching of housekeeping and interior 
decoration, and as a community or school social room 
when occasion demands. (2) A smaller room pro- 
viding at least 200 square feet of floor space communicat- 
ing with the former and also with the kitchen, to be used 
as a dining-room and recitation room, or to be united 
with the living-room when larger space is required for 
lectures or social meetings. (3) A bedroom and bath- 
room to be used for instruction in housekeeping, home 
nursing, first aid, care of children, and at other times 
as a rest-room for teachers or pupils. (4) A room, vary- 
ing in size with the needs of the classes to be held, for 
instruction in cooking. At least one ordinary sized 
family kitchen should be included in the latter space, 
and also laboratory desks or long tables for class in- 
struction, as well as a pantry or storage cupboards. 
(5) A laundry, equipped with stationary and portable 
tubs, dryer, ironing boards, and benches. This room 
should be compact, and separated from the cooking 
room if possible. (6) A sewing-room equipped with 
tables, chairs, sewing machines, pressing boards, and 
walled-off or screened fitting place. The living-room 
mentioned above, under (1), if necessary, may be used 
as sewing-room. 




•UNO 9N1M29 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




In the following discussion of 
the six rooms, comprising five 
units mentioned above, no refer- 
ence as a rule will be made to 
the absolute cost of the equip- 
ment suggested, for it seems to 
the writer that any such discus- 
sion should assume ideal con- 
ditions, without other limitation 
than that of educational effi- 
ciency. The reader who may be 
interested in the practical ma- 
terialization of these plans, and 
who will usually encounter the 
difficulties of limited expend- 
iture, must make for himself the 
choice of apparatus and space 
which his purse, his community 
requirements, and his teaching 
staff demand. The quotation of 
definite prices on any of the 
articles suggested seems inad- 
visable because of the rapidly 
changing character of such prices 
and because of the lack of uni- 
formity in this matter in various 
parts of the country. 

The Cooking Unit. — i . Types 
of Arrangement. — Two types of 
laboratory arrangement have 
been developed for the teaching 
of cooking in the schools. The 
older and still more frequently 
met may be called the laboratory 
desk type, the newer has been 
called the unit kitchen type. In 
the former the usual science 
laboratory arrangement of long 
tables or rows of tables is used ; 
in the latter small inclosures 
imitating in arrangement and 
equipment the home kitchens. 

The laboratory desk type de- 
veloped naturally from the class- 
room habit of teaching, and with 
certain modifications may still 
be considered the most efficient, 
practical, and lasting equipment 
for the teaching of young pupils. 
The objection to this type of 
equipment is, of course, the 
obvious one that it does not 
reproduce home conditions. 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



There is no serious belief by any one experienced 
in the administration of home economics education 
that home conditions can ever be effectually repro- 
duced in the, schools, or even that such a repro- 
duction, if attained, would be altogether desirable. 
In the limited time that can be assigned to domestic 
training, the larger part of the teaching of the sub- 
ject to normal girls, aged n to 18 years, should be 
concerned with the economic and scientific principles 
underlying the purchase and preparation of food, 
rather than with the manual technique, " the skills," 
involved in handling those foods. Expertness in 
manipulation admittedly cannot be attained in all 
types of food preparation, even in the most inde- 
fensibly extended school course in cooking. The 
emphasis, then, should be placed upon mastery of 
the tools, in the sense described above, with the 
expectation that skill in handling will be attained 
on the job. 

Home economics education, even when viewed as 
vocational, must in this respect resemble medical 
or engineering education rather than trade training. 
Skill in the performance of manual operations plays 
surprisingly small part in the efficiency of even the 
rural and village American housewife to-day, while 
great value is attached to intelligent choice of ma- 
terial, expenditure of time and money, management 
of children and leisure time. An analysis of the 
housewife's day in the middle class American home 
would undoubtedly reveal constant choices, planning, 
weighing of values, and some manual labor largely 
of a primitive and easily mastered type. 

The equipment for training future housewives 
should therefore provide for the demonstration of 
fundamental truths, rather than the uninspired 
reproduction of familiar and unanalyzed conditions. 
Since it appears that an analyzed and suggestive 
reproduction of such conditions should furnish the 
desired medium for instruction, a third type of 
arrangement, which is a combination of laboratory 
desk and unit kitchen, is here suggested. This unit 
desk arrangement as shown in Figure 403 may in 
convenient working space exhibit all the elements 
shown in the home kitchen, without the objection- 
able features of the laboratory fitted out with unit 
kitchens only. These objectionable features are, in 
order of increasing importance, the waste of space 
and therefore of pupils' time, difficulty of super- 
vision by one teacher, and inadequacy of group work. 

Some of these same objections may be raised in 
criticism of certain types of the laboratory arrange- 
ment, particularly the hollow square type, for so 
many years the standard in all parts of the United 




SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




COOKING 



AGNES FA? MORGAN * 
JOHN J. DONOVAN, ARCHX * 
* COLLABORATORS * 



ARRANGED TO ACCOMMODATE 12 OR 24 PUPILS ¥ITH 
COMPLETE UNIT TABLES IN A SPACE, 26'-Q' * 35'- 6" 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



475 



States. This arrangement, as shown in Figures 411 and 
416, illustrates the common mistake of placing the pupils 
on the outside of the square, or horseshoe, with supplies 
on the inside, and sinks only at the corners or on the 
opposite walls. Such arrangement involves the maximum 
loss of time on the part of the pupils, with minimum 
exertion on the part of the teacher. Even the teacher 
may find the arrangement not altogether comfortable, 
however, since she is expected to stand within the fiery 
ring of stoves and ovens. 

In the plan of the unit desk arrangement shown in 
Figure 403 each pupil has sufficient table space, 5 square 
feet, in which to keep utensils and to perform mixing 
and other operations, thus supplying all essentials of 
the table and cupboard usually found in the home 
kitchen. She has within 3 or 4 feet behind her a standard 
range, besides the convenient two gas burner stove in 
front of her on top of her desk. She has at her right or 
left hand a convenient sized sink supplied with hot and 
cold water. Behind her are the supply tables just as 
in the home kitchen she finds the supply cupboards. 
Every physical feature of the home kitchen is present, 
with the usual waste space and inefficient arrangement 
eliminated. 

A more expensive but more efficient cooking arrange- 
ment unit than any heretofore commonly used is the 
type of individual unit kitchen desk shown in Figure 404 
and consisting of table, with cupboard below, small 
range, sink and drainboard. One sink, two drain- 
boards, a double table equipped with cupboards on 
two sides, and two small ranges, back to back, in a total 
floor space of 35 square feet supply complete equip- 
ment for two pupils. A cooking-room of the usual size, 
25' X 30', might accommodate six of these units and leave 
sufficient space for necessary tables, storage cupboards, 
and refrigerator. 

It is desirable that at least one unit kitchen or family- 
sized kitchen be added to this equipment, as well as to 
the unit desk arrangement, just as storerooms and 
dining-rooms are usually added. Where space permits 
and older pupils are to be taught, enough unit kitchens 
should be included to accommodate either part or all 
of the class, with not more than three pupils assigned to 
one kitchen. When only part of the class can thus be 
accommodated the others are retained at the table 
desks. Any intermediate arrangement down to the 
minimum of one unit kitchen can of course be used. An 
excellent example of this scheme is shown in Figure 408. 

2. Placing of Unit Kitchens and Table Desks. — The 
spatial arrangement of the table desks and unit kitchens 
when both are used is a problem of some difficulty, which 
will have to be solved in individual cases with reference 
to size of room, number of pupils in the class, lighting, 



and equipment. Figure 405 illustrates a scheme for a 
class of 24 in a space 32'X4o' with windows on three 
or four sides. The objection to this plan lies in the fact 
that to gain access to two of the unit kitchens one must 
pass through one other unit kitchen. This is not a 
serious matter in practice, however, since all supplies 
are assumed available in each unit, and no passing back 
and forth is necessary. An assembly or recitation and 
dining table space add greatly to the value of this ar- 
rangement. 

In Figure 406 an arrangement for smaller space with 
windows on two or three sides is shown. No dining 
table or recitation room is possible in this plan, but the 
unit kitchens are somewhat more satisfactorily ar- 
ranged. The complete desk unit is not available here, 
because of lack of space for the ranges and extra sinks. 
This plan should work out well for smaller classes than 
those for which such an arrangement as is shown in 
Figure 405 is considered necessary. 

For the more advanced lessons which may be given 
to girls of the ages 16 to 19 years, a cooking unit of a 
somewhat more elaborate type is required. In Figure 
407 is shown an example of a suite of rooms which might 
be used for these classes. At the left of the plan will be 
noted the same table desk and unit kitchen combina- 
tion advocated for use in the lower grades. The store- 
room, refrigerator, and dumb-waiter connecting with 
other kitchens or lunchroom above are shown opening 
directly into an entrance service hall. Sometimes 
provision for this important detail of the convenient 
delivery of supplies is neglected. 

3. The Dietetics Laboratory. — At the right of the plan 
in Figure 407 is shown the dietetics laboratory, which 
should be equipped with fume hood, acid-proof sinks, 
and possibly a small separate balance room for the 
carrying out of simple physiological and food chemistry 
experiments to illustrate the study of nutrition. The 
students' desks in this laboratory may be of the usual 
chemistry type, since very little cooking or so-called 
practical food work need be done here. Equipment of 
this sort is not ordinarily found in the home economics 
section of the high schools, or even in junior colleges. 
Its introduction is now both practicable and desirable 
if the food work is to be carried through these higher 
grades without deadening repetition of lessons taught 
earlier in the course. The work outlined for the dietetics 
laboratory cannot usually be advantageously done in 
the chemistry or physiology laboratories by the teachers 
of those subjects because of lack of time, training and 
interest on the part of the latter. Preliminary general 
courses in these subjects and in physics are necessary 
for the students of dietetics. By means of the uni- 
versally interesting applications of these sciences to be 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



477 



found in the study of nutrition and practical dietetics, 
new point and life may be given to the necessary train- 
ing in the scientific method. 

For large schools two suites such as those shown in 
Figures 401 and 407, placed one above the other, present 
all the elements necessary for full instruction of the 
secondary type in scientific and practical aspects of 
the cooking and serving of food, and the care of chil- 
dren and the sick. In Figure 401 a small hospital diet 
kitchen and fully equipped hospital or home bathroom 
are shown, for use in the preliminary training of nurses 
as now practiced in many large high schools. 

4. Arrangement of Unit Kitchens. — Where more 
than one unit kitchen is provided there arises at once 
the problem of the size, kind of partitions, arrangement 
of furniture, and completeness of equipment of each 
unit. 

(a) Size. The unit kitchen for use by not more than 
three pupils does not require more than 60 to 64 square 
feet of floor space. A larger space than this involves 
a waste of time in walking from sink to table to stove ; 
a space much smaller than this involves crowding when 
more than one pupil is at work. 

(b) Partitions. The placing of permanent wooden or 
other opaque partitions between the unit kitchens can- 
not be considered advisable, for a number of reasons. 
Permanent partitions of any kind prevent the flexible 
use of the units by experimental changing of size, and 
opaque partitions render difficult the oversight of the 
class by the teacher. 

In some schools gas pipe railings, three or four feet 
from the floor, have been used to indicate the divisions 
of the unit kitchens. See Figure 409. Movable wooden, 
or better glass partitions mounted on frames and castors 
constitute an excellent means of separation. The 
available space may thus be divided into a larger number 
of small kitchens, or on occasion thrown into large 
compartments. These partition frames when built of 
wood should not be more than four or five feet high, so 
that some supervision by the teacher in adjoining kitchens 
may be possible. The glass partitions allow of higher 
frames if desired. Imaginary partitions may serve 
very well in some schools, particularly in the upper 
grades. 

(c) Arrangement of Furniture. Each kitchen should 
contain a sink with one or two grooved drainboards, a 
stove or range, a storage cabinet, and a worktable. 
Where space is limited cupboards may be built in under 
the drainboards, Figure 409, and a cabinet base table, 
Figure 410, used, with elimination of the storage cabinet. 

All of these articles, with the necessary exception of 
the sink, should be movable so far as possible, Figure 
409. Even the stove in some cases may be changed 



in position at will. The object of mobility is chiefly 
that of affording practice for the pupils in the efficient 
arrangement of their kitchens and of accommodating 
in the same rooms classes of various sizes, and different 
kinds of instruction. Where it is impossible or un- 
desirable to provide for movable furniture, some economy 
can be effected by the construction of built-in cabinets. 

5. Materials and Finish of Walls and Floors. — In 
choosing the materials and finish for the interior surfaces 
of cooking units the first consideration should be sani- 
tation and washableness. Trim metal is the most 
desirable but its cost is prohibitive compared with that 
of wood. The least amount of wood trim is desirable, 
for the finish of these rooms should approach that of the 
interior finish of hospitals where corners are rounded, 
bases coved, and chair rails when used have a very 
slight projection from the plaster walls. All wood trim 
such as baseboards, chair rails, picture moldings, cas- 
ings and doors, frames, window sash, etc., should be 
given at least three coats of lead and oil paint and two 
coats of a high grade of flat enamel paint with the gloss 
only slightly dulled. 

When the funds will permit, the chair rail should be 
omitted and the walls tiled to a height of five or six 
feet with an encaustic glazed tile 6"x6" so as to have as 
few joints as possible, with a 6-inch sanitary coved glazed 
tile base at the floor. At the top of the tiling should be 
a glazed tile cap of simple design with the least neces- 
sary projection. 

When tile cannot be used because of cost, Keene's 
cement plaster wainscoting is the next best material. 
When used it should not be marked off to imitate tile, as 
the markings serve no better purpose than so many 
recesses for the lodgment of dirt, grease, etc. The 
jointing defeats the purpose of the use of the materials 
and should not be allowed. The Keene's cement wain- 
scot should be carried to the height suggested for tile 
and finished at the top with or without a cap, preferably 
the latter. The walls and ceilings above the wainscot 
should be of hard wall plaster troweled to a smooth, 
hard surface. 

All Keene cement and plastered wall and ceiling 
surfaces should be painted with a high grade of wash- 
able wall paint, having no less than three coats, and then 
given a " satinette " enamel final coat. The color 
scheme may vary with the light accessible to the rooms, 
cream or ivory tones being as a rule the most favorable 
for all purposes. 

Floors : The most desirable of all flooring for cooking 
units is cork tiling, as it is resilient, washable, and com- 
fortable to work upon. Here again the cost is an ele- 
ment likely to limit its use. The next best are tile, com- 
position, or cement flooring in order. Cement and tile, 



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THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



479 



however, require linoleum strips or sections in the 
working divisions. The advantage in the use of these 
materials with a sanitary cove base of similar materials 
is that by installing deep sealed floor drains the floors 
may be hosed freely. 

Wood floors are and will be most generally chosen, as 
they are the least expensive. Consequently, the harder 
and more durable woods should be selected. Maple is 
by far the best of all woods for such flooring. Next 
in order are birch, northern pine, Douglas fir, and south- 
ern pine. 

The finish of wood floors should be of a high grade 
floor varnish, at least three coats. Usually the wood 
floors of cooking units are treated with a prepared floor 
oil, but the low kindling temperature of such floor 
dressings makes their use dangerous, particularly where 
there is so much use of fuel. 

6. Working Tables. — A number of arrangements of 
the continuous table desks in the cooking unit are possible, 
the two most frequently used being the hollow square 
and the parallel long tables. In Figure 403 is shown a 
modified hollow square with the objectionable features 
eliminated. Figure 412 illustrates another modification 
of this arrangement, two long tables with students 
facing each other, and space between for the teacher. 
The supply tables and ranges are placed then back of 
the students and at the sides of the room. This arrange- 
ment is probably the most economical of space of any 
that has been devised. In the dietetics laboratory in 
Figure 407 are shown the conventional double tables 
long found practical in chemistry laboratories. Any 
arrangement based on a stationary position for the 
teacher is not as likely to be serviceable as one in which 
the teacher is expected to move about from one pupil's 
desk to another, for constant supervision and assistance 
in the mechanical operations taught. 

Whatever the placing of the tables, there should 
always be. allowed sufficient working space for each 
pupil. This should be not less than five square feet of 
unobstructed table top, the depth usually being not over 
24 inches, the width 30 inches. 

If ordinary movable kitchen tables are used, as they 
often may be, not more than two pupils, preferably only 
one, should be assigned to each table, 3' 6 // X2 / 3" in size. 
When these tables are used the difficulty arises of pro- 
viding suitable cupboard space for the individual utensils. 
This difficulty may be solved by the use of cabinet type 
tables such as those illustrated in Figure 410. These 
cabinet type movable tables might well be used in the 
individual unit kitchen desk illustrated in Figure 404. 
There are several excellent tables of this kind on the 
market, which may be purchased in communities where 
it may not be possible to have them built to specifica- 



tions. In furnishing the large unit kitchen this type of 
table is not required in most cases since cupboards or 
cabinets are usually included in the furnishings. 

Design of Table Desk Cabinets. Where continuous 
table desks are used, as illustrated in Figures 401, 405, 
406, 407, 412, the drawers and cupboards built in below 
must be designed with special attention to the number of 
utensils assigned each outfit, and to the number of 
different classes using a given table. One or two open 
shelves beneath the top, one drawer and one shelf, 
several drawers, or a drawer and cupboard are the 
variations that naturally suggest themselves. In Figure 
414 is shown the front elevation of a type of table desk 
well adapted to use for dietetics or other advanced course 
in which a certain amount of individual apparatus may 
have to be assigned. Each unit of this table contains 
four individual lockers, one common locker, and one 
common drawer. Four students in different sections 
might thus have an individual assignment of apparatus 
with a certain amount of materials and utensils in com- 
mon in the unlocked drawer and cupboard. 

In Figure 415 are shown the front elevations of two 
other less elaborate arrangements, the one alternating 
an open space with a drawer and a cupboard, the other 
showing a tier of four drawers, then a single drawer, 
then a drawer and cupboard, a single drawer again, 
and the whole repeated. In Figure 416 an arrangement 
similar to the simpler one outlined in Figure 415 is 
shown. Other designs may be used, such as that of a 
roller drop over the cupboard below the drawer, Figure 
413, or two full length double drawers, one of them 
sufficiently deep to serve as cupboard, illustrated in 
Figure 417. 

A good clear piece of maple or similar wood from 
i8 // Xi2 // to 24"X24" in size with drawer pull is usually 
provided for molding or bread board, and fitted into 
a space immediately under the table top in each pupil's 
working area. Well-sized heavy pieces of canvas treated 
with a light dressing of paraffin or oil may be used in- 
stead of these boards if occasion demands. 

Materials for Table Tops. Sugar pine, maple, or any 
other serviceable hard wood may be used for the table 
tops, and may be finished in a variety of ways. If left 
unvarnished or painted, considerable time and labor 
must be expended in keeping the wood scoured, a ne- 
cessity not desirable under any conditions. Painting, 
enameling, staining, and varnishing are the alternatives 
with wooden tops. 

A number of composition materials, such as alberene 
or germanstone, are available for table tops, and are 
easy to care for, but are often absorbent of grease and 
other substances. Cement tops have been used in some 
schools to good advantage. 




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Vitrified tile, glass, marble, lava have all been used 
with varying success. The glass, marble, and lava 
crack with heat, and are destructive of glass and china 
utensils ; the tile, being set in small pieces, collects dirt, 
and wears out in the seams. 

Any table top chosen should be easily cleaned, non- 
absorbent, not warped or cracked by heat, fireproof , and 
resistant to acids and alkalis. Any good grade of wood, 
such as sugar pine, treated with acid-proof liquid and 
properly protected by metal under the stoves is probably 
the best and most economical choice to meet most of 
these requirements. 

Heights of Tables. The height of a table adjusted 
for standing work for the medium tall adult woman, 
66 inches in height, should be about $5 to 38 inches. 
The American girl 11 to 14 years old, the 7th, 8th, and 
9th grade ages, averages 53 to 59 inches in height, and 
should therefore work at a table not more than 23 to 29 
inches high. Where tables are constructed for indi- 
vidual classes of known average height better adjust- 
ment can naturally be made. For the senior high school 
classes, the tables may be of standard adult height, or in 
the unit kitchens and unit kitchen desks, varied an inch 
or two so that pupils of various sizes may be assigned 
to working tables best suited to their needs. 

Some kind of seat should be provided for each pupil, 
since many of the operations to be carried out are long 
and tedious. These seats may be either unattached 
stools, or seats attached to the side of the table desks 
by hinged brackets. If space is provided under the 
table top for the seats to be swung or pushed out of the 
way when not in use a neater and more usable laboratory 
results. If separate stools are provided their legs should 
be tipped with rubber or at least with metal glide caps. 
In any case the height of the seat should be carefully 
adjusted to the average height of the pupils as well as 
to the height of the table. With tables 31 inches high, 
the stools should measure 19 inches, or in general a 
difference of 1 2 inches should be maintained between the 
two. 

7. Stoves. — The type of stove used in the school must 
be chosen with reference to the fuels in use in the com- 
munity. Where several kinds of fuel are accessible, 
stoves constructed for use with each should be available 
in the school. Wherever possible small individual gas 
stoves should be provided for the general class instruc- 
tion in principles, although single examples of others, 
such as oil, coal, and electric ranges, should be available 
for the teaching of the peculiar technique involved in 
their use, and for comparisons of costs and speed of 
cooking. 

Electric Stoves. If electric stoves are used, small hot 
plates and double ovens may be used on the table desks, 



and an electric range in the unit kitchens or unit kitchen 
desks. Individual meters should be attached to these 
devices, for the cost of electric cooking is usually large 
enough to warrant this special emphasis on the study 
of economy in its use. In Figure 418, showing part of 
the electrical equipment in use in the University of 
New Mexico, these individual meters may be seen. 

Gas Stoves. Single or double burner gas plates are 
usually attached immovably to the back of the table 
desks, over some sort of fire-resistant material. These 
small stoves are useful for class instruction in principles, 
taking the place of the Bunsen burners used for a similar 
purpose in other science laboratories. For various 
excellent types of these small stoves see Figures 416, 
417, 419. 

With properly guarded flexible metal tubing con- 
nections, however, these gas plates may be made mov- 
able, and the working space on the desk top more va- 
riously usable. The gas plates must then be attached 
to stiff magnesite boards, unless a strip of zinc or copper 
is placed across the back of the table top, for fire pro- 
tection. This arrangement, as well as the more usual 
fixed burner type, is illustrated in Figure 420. 

For most communities, gas is still the cheapest, 
cleanest, and generally most efficient fuel for cooking. 
The ranges used in the unit kitchens or unit kitchen desks 
should therefore, if possible, be chosen from among the 
excellent varieties of gas ranges now on the market, and 
as many different types should be installed as there are 
kitchens to equip, for good points of various sorts are 
exhibited by many of them. For the unit desk arrange- 
ment illustrated in Figure 403 and the unit kitchen desk 
illustrated in Figure 404 the small 3 or 4 burner range 
with oven below should be chosen, in order that space 
may be saved and supervision by the teacher made 
easier. In the larger unit kitchens the larger ranges 
with oven above may be installed. 

The gas meter should be conspicuously placed on the 
wall of the cooking laboratory, so that the pupils may be 
taught to read and observe it. See Figure 416. In high 
schools and junior colleges at least one stove besides 
should have an individual meter for experimental pur- 
poses. 

A water and electric meter as well should be available 
for instruction in reading and computing of costs in 
some part of the home economics school equipment. 

Oil, Coal, and Wood Stoves. If coal or wood is used 
at all in the community, at least one stove of these types 
should be found in the laboratory, and indeed several 
different types, if no other fuel is available. Simple 4- 
or 6-hole ranges are best for the instruction in family- 
size cooking, with single or double oil burners for the 
table desk practice. Small portable ovens should be 



482 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 














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UNIT KITCHEN ARRANGEMENTS. 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



483 



provided for use with the latter as well as with the gas 
plates described above. It may be advisable where 
both coal and gas are commonly used to equip the unit 
kitchens with good combination coal and gas ranges. 

If coal, wood, or oil for use with these stoves are kept 
in the cooking-room, fireproof boxes should be pro- 
vided for them. 

Hoods. It is an excellent precaution wherever possible 
to install metal hoods or canopies over the larger ranges, 
the outlets being connected with the usual ventilating 
shaft. The installation of these hoods in the unit 
kitchens, unit kitchen desks, and lunchrooms should 
help to solve the problem of the ever present odors so 
often an objectionable feature of cooking instruction 
in the schools. Moreover, if these canopies are con- 
structed of steel, copper, galvanized or Russian iron, 
well insulated by asbestos from any wooden wall sur- 
faces, they lessen considerably the fire hazard. Where 
special care to avoid obstruction of the light is necessary, 
wire glass should be substituted for the metal. 

8. Sinks. — ■ (a) Standard porcelain sinks of the usual 
kitchen size, 1' 6"X2'o", should be used in the unit 
kitchens and unit desks, (b) smaller sinks at intervals 
of 4 to 8 feet let into the long table desks, or (c) small 
sinks and copper or other metal-lined trough. In 
Figures 405, 406, 414, and 420 sinks of type (c) are 
illustrated, the detail of which is given in Figure 414. 
An arrangement of type (b) is shown in Figures 420 
and 412; type (a) in all the unit kitchens. In Figure 
419 it may be noted that although the sinks provided 
are numerous and of excellent design the mistake of 
omitting drainboards has been made. Double inclined 
and grooved wooden drainboards should be attached 
to all the larger sinks in the cooking-room, being omitted 
only in the case of the small sinks and troughs, types 
(b) and (c) above, used with certain kinds of long 
table desks. In the latter case the sinks are designed 
to be mere catch-basins below the water faucets, not 
to be used for dishwashing. Other materials, such as 
germanstone or similar compositions, porcelain, or zinc, 
are sometimes used for drainboards, but for the same 
reasons given in the discussion of table tops prove less 
satisfactory than wood. Where space for a drainboard 
is not available, small movable porcelain top tables 
should be placed near the sink. 

In order that the time of pupils and teacher may be 
conserved, all dishwashing sinks should be piped with 
hot water, and whenever possible the table desks should 
be similarly equipped. In the unit kitchens, unit 
kitchen desks, diet kitchen, and dietetics laboratory, 
hot water should be available over each sink. In order 
to provide this a suitable type of water boiler should be 
installed in the cooking unit, preferably in a hall or 



separate inclosure with all precautions against fire risk, 
or hot water from the school steam plant may be used 
if available. 

A short nickeled, tin, or glass towel rod should be 
attached to some convenient part of the individual desk. 
It may be placed on the inner side of a cupboard door 
or the under side of the table top, ledge or sink drain- 
board. See side of sink in Figure 404. This is for use 
during the lesson, when constant employment of hand 
and dish towel is necessary. A larger towel drier or 
rack of the collapsible wall, laundry, horse, or inclosed 
steam types should be provided for the drying of towels 
between lessons. It should be candidly stated, however, 
that the minimum of time spent in laundering towels 




Fig. 410. — ■ Movable Cabinet and Table with Alba Iron White 
Porcelain Top. 

should be exacted of pupils and teacher, since with a 
reasonably large supply and frequent consignments to a 
local laundry the towels can be maintained in a more 
sanitary condition, and school time saved for other more 
profitable exercises. For instruction in laundering pro- 
cesses, an occasional lesson in towel-washing should be 
given. 

The rolls of paper towels now so common may often 
be utilized for hand washing with resultant saving in 
laundry. These rolls should be placed over each large 
sink, with a waste basket for receiving the shreds on the 
floor beneath. 

9. Storage Cupboards and Cabinets. — ■ If sufficient 
storage space in drawers and cupboards be supplied 
each student in the desk tables, a smaller number of 
general cupboards will need to be provided. Usually 
some cupboards with shelves and drawers should be 
built into the walls, to store extra utensils and supplies 
not distributed in the individual desk space, or in the 
cabinets of the unit kitchens. If possible, all shelves 



4 8 4 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



should be inclosed, and in some cases, at least, glass 
doors are desirable. 

If sufficient wall space for the construction of these 
cupboards is not available in the cooking-room a separate 
pantry should be provided. See Figures 401 and 404. In 
any case the shelves should be either movable or care- 
fully planned beforehand for certain uses. The drawers 
are more useful if their contents also are planned for, 
and thin wooden partitions properly distributed within 
them. 

There are several excellent movable kitchen cabinets 
on the market equipped with drawers, bins, shelves, and 
boxes, which may sometimes prove more economical 
and efficient than built-in appliances. Their best 
feature lies in their being easily moved about. In 
Figures 421 and 422 are shown some examples of these 
cabinets. Usually these articles are best confined to the 
unit kitchens, and a simpler arrangement of drawers, 
shelves, and bins built into the wall for the general use 
of the teacher and the whole class at the desk tables. 

Supply Shelves. Shelves for supplies may be made of 
plate glass or of wood covered with a good washable 
enamel or with well-secured oilcloth. All shelves and 
drawers need frequent washing and should be constructed 
and finished with this in mind. 

Large quantities of food supplies are no longer neces- 
sarily accumulated in school kitchens, even where family- 
size portions of food are prepared, for the saving in 
cost is not now so great as formerly when large amounts 
are purchased. Modern food economics points towards 
the more complete segregation of food storage in ware- 
houses under optimum conditions, and away from 
family storage and preservation. This tendency re- 
flected in price removes the former advantage obtained 
by large quantity buying, with its attendant danger of 
loss by spoilage. Overlarge storage capacity should 
therefore no longer be considered a necessary part of the 
school cooking equipment. The large flour, meal, and 
vegetable bins formerly used should now be replaced 
by 10, 25, or 50 pound capacity tin boxes or stone crocks 
and plenty of narrow shelves for package goods. Foods 
which can be kept in jars should be placed in well- 
labeled 1, 2, or 3 quart wide mouth glass jars for 
protection against dust and vermin. These jars may 
be placed on narrow open shelves on the side walls, 
just as on an opposite wall should be placed the jars 
and bottles of the simple chemicals needed for the 
demonstration of the composition and properties of 
foodstuffs. 

Supply Tables. Large plain kitchen tables, with or 
without drawers and cupboards below, should be used 
for setting out, convenient to the students' reach, the 
supplies needed for a given lesson. These tables, not 



less than 2 r Xs' in size, should be equipped with large 
ball-bearing castors, and covered with heavy oilcloth, 
vitrolite glass, or porcelain tiling. Since every student 
should find herself within two or three steps of such a 
supply table, the number of these tables should be about . 
one to each 4 to 8 students. If extra cooking or chemical 
equipment be needed for a given lesson, this too may be 
placed on the supply tables beforehand. The proper 
use of such tables may add somewhat to the work of 
preparation by the teacher, but can be made to increase 
very greatly the quantity and effectiveness of work 
done by the student in a short laboratory period. In- 
deed the habit of thus systematically preparing for the 
performance of any kitchen task is not the least valuable 
lesson to be learned by the cooking class. 

In the unit kitchen desks a two-gallon enameled 
garbage pail with cover, operated by a foot lever, is a 
useful part of the equipment. See Figure 404. Similar 
pails should be placed under the large sinks or at the 
ends of the desk tables. Sometimes small earthen 
garbage jars, with or without covers, may be used to 
advantage as part of the individual desk equipment. 

Refrigerators. An indispensable feature of the cook- 
ing unit is the refrigerator. This may be built into the 
wall, with an ice compartment which may be reached 
from an outside hallway, or better may be of the ready -built 
movable type which is furnished by refrigerator concerns 
in a large variety of styles and sizes. The size must be 
governed, of course, by the number and size of the 
classes which will use it, although an ice compartment 
holding less than 50 lb. of ice is usually expensive and 
inefficient. The style should be simple, washable in all 
parts, and readily disassembled for inspection and study. 
Porcelain or enamel lining is preferable to galvanized 
steel. The refrigerator should be placed close to an 
outside door or in a service hall for convenience in de- 
livery of the ice. In addition to the refrigerator a cool- 
ing closet of generous size is an excellent feature of the 
cooking unit. 

10. Utensils and Apparatus. — Several types of equip- 
ment for food manipulation should be provided. These 
are (a) the individual desk table equipment ; (b) the unit 
kitchen or unit desk equipment ; (c) labor-saving devices ; 
(d) chemical or scientific equipment ; (e) hotel or lunch- 
room equipment ; (/) hospital diet kitchen equipment. 

For all the cooking utensils a few general words may 
be said as to material, design, and number. 

A variety of materials should be used for purposes 
of comparison and study, such as saucepans, double 
boilers, pie-pans, dishpans, etc., of gray, white, and 
blue enamel ware, aluminum, cast aluminum, tin, nickel, 
and galvanized iron. Each unit kitchen or unit kitchen 
desk should be equipped with a different type of ware, 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



485 



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none that is efficient, safe, and properly constructed 
being omitted. Many teachers and housekeepers find 
the aluminum ware particularly convenient because of 
its lightness, durability, and high heat conductivity. 
American granite ware, gray or blue, and the Swedish 
white enamel ware are found also to be light, easily 
cleaned, and of lower original cost. When the granite 
ware begins to chip seriously it should be discarded be- 
cause of danger of antimony poisoning, difficulty of 
cleaning, and unevenness of heating. The heavy black 
iron kettles of the last generation need not be represented 
in the modern school kitchen, nor the copper ware which 
is now practically unobtainable for general use. Only 
the actually used wares of to-day should appear, but 
these in all of the approved types. 

Simple designs should be chosen for all cooking utensils ; 
those with no sharp corners, or cracks, rolled-over edges, 
or unnecessary indentations are best. The stream-line 



design is applicable to cooking utensils as well as to 
automobiles, and provides most surely against the ac- 
cumulation of dirt. 

(a) The Individual Desk Table and General Class 
Equipment. The number of utensils provided for each 
pupil should be kept small enough to avoid cluttering the 
table, waste of time in cleaning, or the cultivation of an 
undesirable dependence upon specific tools. At the 
same time the variety should be sufficient to prevent 
waste of time and material in cooking operations. 

A certain number of utensils should thus be available 
in the drawers and cupboards assigned to each student, 
including a small amount of the simplest chemical ap- 
paratus. In addition to such articles as trip balances 
and thermometers, a microscope should be stored in the 
wall cupboards or supply room ready for occasional use. 
In the same manner extra cooking equipment must be 
kept on hand in the cooking unit, ready for use on 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



487 




Fig. 413. — Cooking-room, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 



occasion. This extra equipment consists largely of 
bread-baking, fruit-canning, jelly-making, freezing, and 
similar appliances. 1 

(6) The Unit Kitchen Equipment. In the movable 
cabinet and table drawers of the unit kitchen should be 
stored family-size cooking equipment of rather large 
. variety. Each kitchen may be equipped with a dif- 
ferent ware if desired, but care should be taken that all 
necessary articles are supplied in each. The setting out 
of the necessary supplies and of extra utensils should 
seldom be done by the teacher preceding a lesson in 
family-size food or meal preparation in the unit kitchen. 
All materials and utensils should be put away in their 
proper places in the kitchen and the pupils expected 
to get them out and do the work in an orderly and 
efficient fashion. 2 

Family-size Cooking Utensils. It would scarcely be 
sufficient, as might be thought at first glance, to com- 



bine all the apparatus listed under individual desk and 
general class equipment in order to indicate the furnishing 
of the family-size kitchen. The difficulty is that in many 
cases larger size utensils must be used, as well as certain 
mechanical devices, the use of which is not required in 
the analyzed or idealized processes carried out at the 
desk tables during instruction in the principles of food 
selection and preparation. Examples of the latter are 
the bread and cake mixers, various types of egg beaters, 
mayonnaise mixers, etc. The different purposes for 
which the unit kitchen practice operations are pre- 
scribed must be kept in mind in choosing utensils for 
these parts of the cooking laboratory. 

Individual Serving Outfit. With the addition of a 
small outfit of serving dishes and silver, valuable practice 
in meal serving by small groups of pupils, or even by one 
at a time, can be carried on in the unit kitchens. Small 
movable dining tables may be placed in the space 



1 For complete lists of utensils required, see Equipment fcr Teaching Domestic Science, by Helen Kinne, Whitcomb and Barrows, 1509. 

2 See Iris Prouty O'Leary — Cooking in the Vocational School as Training for Home Making, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 
whole No, 625. 



4 88 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



directly in front of the open kitchen as shown in Figure 
423, or the kitchen table may be converted for the purpose 
into a temporary dining table. With this arrangement 
every article of food cooked may be served, at least by 
mock service. 

The dishes and other table ware used for this purpose 
should be of a uniform pattern so that when collected for 
larger meal service they may serve for the formal dining- 
room equipment. 

The unit kitchen desk, because of limited cupboard 
space, naturally cannot be equipped with as large an 
assortment of utensils as the larger kitchen, but may be 
provided with a considerably larger outfit than that 
described for the individual desks in the long table or 
class desks. In any case the latter may be looked upon 
as the minimum and the unit kitchen equipment as the 
optimum, any possible compromise being struck between 
the two. 

(c) Labor-saving Devices in the Kitchen. (1) Elec- 
trical appliances. If electric current is available, at least 
one type of electric toaster, thermostat oven, coffee urn, 
and water heater should be included in the cooking equip- 
ment. Special attention in high school continuation 
classes may thus be directed towards the rapid prepara- 
tion of the small family breakfast or lunch. The use of 
the small electric motor for beating eggs, salad dressing, 
turning the freezer, the sewing machine, the buffer, etc., 
should also be taught. 

(2) Fireless cookers. A number of simply constructed 
tireless cookers are on the market, and numerous di- 
rections are available for amateur construction of these 
labor-saving devices. At least one example of this piece 
of apparatus should be found in every school kitchen. 

(3) Pressure cookers. The small aluminum pressure 
cooker of vaselike shape is still probably the most 
satisfactory article for general use. Its shape and size 
are both poorly chosen for use in canning, however, so 
that if much canning work is to be done, as in country 
schools, this cooker should be discarded in favor of the 
square steam canner. Some type of pressure cooker 
should be available even in the elementary school 
equipment for demonstration of the processing of canned 
foods, sterilization for hygienic purposes, the rapid 
cooking of tough meats and otherwise usually long-process 
foods, as well as of the relation between pressure and 
boiling temperature. 

(4) Dish-washing devices. Although no efficient dish- 
washing machine for a small number of dishes and a 
small expenditure of money is yet available, there 
can be little doubt that simple devices to decrease the 
drudgery of dish-washing will continue to be made, 
and their use should be taught. A few articles of this 

1 Survey of the Gary Public Schools. 



kind are : well-designed dish drainers, mops, plate 
scrapers, chain pot scrubbers, hose and spray attach- 
ments for rinsing dishes, rubber mats and stoppers for 
sink and drainboard, sink strainers, soap shakers. 

If hotel or lunch room trade classes are held, practice 
in the manipulation of a modern dish-washing machine 
should be provided as well. 

(5) Wheel tray. A thoroughly mobile wheel tray 
equipped with large ball-bearing rubber-tired castors 
with two trays and perhaps a drawer, is an excellent 
appliance for use in the school kitchen. If a formal meal 
is to be served some such wheeled device is almost in- 
dispensable. The article may be made out of any 
ordinary small table by adding the wheels as shown in 
Figure 423, but is preferably of metal, for durability 
and ease in cleaning. This tray is not to be confused with 
the pleasing bit of dining-room furniture known as the 
tea wagon. The latter may be loaded in the pantry 
or at dining-room door from the tray, for it is usually 
not constructed for the humble utilitarian purpose to be 
served by the wheel tray. 

(d) Chemical or Scientific Equipment. For the proper 
development of an experimental basis for the study of 
the selection and preparation of food, as well as for the 
illustration of scientific principles by means of such 
study, a certain amount of simple chemical apparatus 
is desirable for high school classes. Some of this ap- 
paratus should be stored in the individual desks and the 
students made responsible for it. Some of the apparatus 
should be stored in the teacher's cabinets and distributed 
to the students only at the times when it is to be used. 
In the former list are included a few test tubes, filter 
funnels, beakers, flasks, test-tube brush, filter paper; 
in the latter, balances, thermometers, Bunsen burners, 
stands and clamps, condensers, pipettes, burettes, and 
reagents. Without such equipment the illuminating 
and interesting tests for the various characteristic food 
compounds cannot be made. 

(e) Hotel or Lunch Room Equipment. One type of trade 
requiring professional training, which may well develop 
out of home economics education as commonly under- 
stood, is that of cafeteria or lunch room manager or 
worker. To make a proper field for practice and super- 
vision in this training the school lunch room or cafeteria 
should be either under the direct charge of the home 
economics teacher or under a trained manager willing 
and able to cooperate with the department. 

It may be assumed to be unwise, if not disastrous, to 
attempt such a scheme as that tried in the Gary Schools 1 
and elsewhere, in making the school lunch room de- 
pendent upon the output of the cooking classes, and 
the cooking teacher and the pupils responsible, with very 

Household Arts, by Eva W. White, 1918. 



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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



little paid help, for the food served. The working of 
this plan has nearly always been unfortunate, and illus- 
trative only of a theoretically plausible but actually 
impractical scheme of education. Instruction and pro- 
duction cannot be yoked in this way, for instruction 
which is not immediately measurable in results that all 
may see, is almost certain to be neglected. 

A legitimate use of the lunch room may be made, how- 
ever, for training in management, planning, and buying, 
small classes of older students, already well grounded in 
the principles of cooking, menu making, and serving. 
Very little or none of the drudgery of the lunch prepara- 
tion should be shifted on the shoulders of these students 
under the specious disguise of education. 



be finished in a hard washable white or cream enamel or 
tiling, the floor should be of tiling or covered with 
linoleum. 1 

Effective relief of the hospitals from training of nurses 
in preliminary courses in choice, cooking, and serving 
of food cannot be brought about until the schools are 
able to duplicate such hospital devices as these in the 
training diet kitchen. 

ii. Care of Equipment. There is often expressed the 
view that one of the aims in the teaching of domestic 
science is training in habits of cleanliness in the conduct 
of the kitchen. This debatable view is expressed in one 
of the most inclusive and valuable of the treatises on 
home economics education. 2 




ELEVATIONS OF 



TWO TYPES 

Fig. 415. 



OF DESK T/VBLE5. 



Although the large quantity products of all the cook- 
ing classes should be marketed through the lunch room, 
there should be no contract to deliver every day a 
certain proportion of the food served. Large quantity 
cooking equipment need not be supplied in the cooking 
units, therefore, if the steam table, soup kettles, and 
other articles necessarily found in the cafeteria or lunch 
room kitchen can be used by the small class interested 
in that type of work. 

Thorough familiarity with the labor-saving and large- 
quantity cooking utensils in use in commercial food 
establishments should form part of this trade training. 
Here again we note the necessity of professionalizing 
parts of the home economics curriculum which were 
formerly taught with the housewife's limitations con- 
stantly in view. 

(/) Hospital Diet Kitchen Equipment. One of the vo- 
cational or prevocational courses now often emphasized in 
girls' high schools is that of food and nutrition or dietetics 
work for girls planning to enter nurses' training schools. 
For the optimum development of these important classes 
a small diet kitchen should be attached to the cooking 
laboratory. See Figure 401. This room should con- 
tain, in addition to the usual refrigerator, sink, cabinet, 
table and range, a small steam table, broiler, tray rack, 
dish sterilizer, and heated food truck. The walls should 



The writer believes that in actual teaching far too 
much emphasis has been laid upon this aspect of the 
subject. Nothing is more natural or simple for the 
uncritical teacher than to make the piece de resistance of 
every lesson the thorough cleaning of utensils, sinks, 
stoves, and tables. Often as much as twenty minutes 
out of the total of 60 or 80 or even 45 are devoted to this 
drudgery. Yet even more time than this must be given 
to repetition of these operations if automatic response in 
later practice is to be expected. In the meantime, since 
new mental concepts are not taught, the intelligent con- 
trol of food choice and manipulation sought is entirely 
missed. An occasional lesson in kitchen housewifery 
should be introduced instead, and the work of scrubbing 
sinks and tables be left to the janitor. 

The janitor or janitress in charge of home economics 
rooms should have sufficient help to be able to keep these 
rooms in spotless order, and should understand the 
special requirements of such care. In some small 
schools the teacher, with student help, may be obliged 
to supplement the janitor's efforts, but such work should 
be done out of school hours, and as a distinct part of the 
janitor's and not the class' duties. 

The Serving Unit. In addition to the improvised 
serving equipment already mentioned as of value in 
supplementing the unit kitchen and unit kitchen desk, 



1 Ruth McNary Smith, Equipping a Diet Kitchen, Journal of Home Economics — Vol. 9, page 1 

2 Bulletin 36, U. S. Bureau of Education — Education for the Home, by Benjamin H. Andrews — 



- page 28. 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



491 




Fig. 416. — Domestic Science Room, Clawson School, Oakland, Californ: 



a more formal provision for meal serving in a dining-room 
should be made. The inclusion of some sort of dining- 
room in the home economics suite has of recent years 
become so general that only a few words need be said 
here as to details. 

Size of Dining-room. The room to be used for dining- 
room need not be, for teaching purposes, larger than that 
required for the ordinary sized family, but should never- 
theless be large enough to accommodate the occasional 
dinner or supper for school groups, such as faculty,, 
school board, or students' society. Such a room might 
be i5'Xi8' to 2o'X24' in size. 

The intent in the latter provision is one of community 
usefulness which need have no bearing on the teaching 
carried on in the department. The caution mentioned 
before in the matter of the school lunch might be re- 
peated here. Even though equipment be provided for 
the serving of meals to groups having definite connection 
with the school life, it should be understood that teachers 
and pupils in the food study department should be ex- 
pected to assume responsibility for such service only 
when in the judgment of the director educational value 
may be derived from it. 

In planning the space allowed for the dining-room, 



a third consideration besides the practice for the classes 
in serving and community usefulness is involved, that 
of alternative use of the room for other purposes. Fre- 
quently, no recitation room is provided for home econom- 
ics classes, instruction being carried on in the cooking 
laboratory. For some lessons this arrangement is un- 
satisfactory and might economically be supplemented 
by use of the dining-room as a classroom. The extra 
equipment to provide for this double use of the room 
consists of a portable blackboard and a sufficient number 
of movable tablet armchairs. If a closet can be pro- 
vided into which the usual round dining table can be 
rolled when not in use, still further usableness of the 
room is possible. 

If the objection is raised that alternative use of this 
room for other than serving purposes is likely to detract 
from its homelike character, it may be pointed out in 
answer that only the skeleton of home conditions need be 
reproduced in the school, and that the exclusively domes- 
tic atmosphere often sought by domestic science teachers 
can be attained at too great cost, if efficiency in the use of 
expensive school space and equipment must be sacrificed. 

The Floor and Wall Finish. The dining-room floor 
will naturally be finished in the same durable wood used 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 417. — Domestic Science Room, Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



in other parts of the school, the finish being wax, oil, 
or varnish. Often a good quality of large rug is pro- 
vided when the school can afford to use the room only 
as a dining-room. When it is used also for a recitation 
room the rug becomes a nuisance and may well be 
eliminated. 

The walls should be finished in some attractive home- 
like style, the plaster tinted in soft shades, or a simple, 
plain wall paper used. The choice of color scheme of 
the room should be guided by exposure, amount of light, 
and view. Sunny rooms may be finished in grays, cool 
browns, blues and greens without seeming cold, while 
dark north rooms require yellows and warm reddish 
browns for successful treatment. It is usually best to 
select a neutral grayish or brownish tone for the walls 
and rug and to provide variety and accent in window 
hangings and pictures. 

The whole problem of the selection of colors and fur- 
nishings for the dining-room, as well as for the house- 
keeping unit, constitutes a splendid exercise for the 



classes in house decoration. In order that the best 
use may be made of the opportunity by these classes, 
inexpensive and easily altered wall finish, curtains, and 
furniture should be chosen. In many large high schools 
the woodworking classes have been able to design and 
make part or all of the furniture, the sewing and art 
classes have designed and made curtains, wall stencils, 
table covers, and have repainted furniture and redyed 
fabric so as to set forth the dining-room frequently 
in new and charming guise. 

In Figure 424 is shown a view of the practical and 
good-looking dining-room furnished in this way in the 
Lux School in San Francisco. This room is large enough 
to be used daily as dining-room for all the teachers 
of the school, but it is so designed and furnished as to 
serve excellently also for the class practice in the serving 
of home meals. The color scheme used in this case is 
golden brown. 

Furniture. The necessary furniture for the dining- 
room consists of a round or square extension table, 6 to 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



493 



20 dining chairs, and a serving table or buffet. In 
addition there may be a china cupboard, tea table, tea 
wagon, muffin stand. The latter articles are not in- 
dispensable, and most of them are best stored away in a 
roomy closet off the dining-room except when in use. 
The china cupboard may be dispensed with if a pantry 
between the kitchen and dining-room is provided. This 
latter plan, as shown in Figure 401, is on the whole most 
efficient for school purposes, since the removal and 
putting away of dishes may then be carried on without 
disturbing the group using the dining-room. Where 
space is limited, however, see Figure 403, either a mov- 
able or built-in cupboard 
may form part of the 
dining-room furniture. 

The kind of furniture 
chosen should be governed 
by the taste and habits 
of the community as well 
as funds available. It is 
usually best to make a 
conservative choice, 
avoiding the passing fancy 
of the moment. The 
simple and graceful lines 
of some of the so-called 
colonial furniture will 
please long after the knobs 
and twists of certain other 
styles have become mo- 
notonous or tawdry. It 
need hardly be added 
that imitation woods or 
leather are entirely out 
of place in school furni- 
ture and that the best 
genuine materials finished 
to show what they are, 
which are purchasable with the money available, are most 
suitable under all circumstances. Plain oak furniture 
may be stained and waxed in a number of pleasing ways, 
all of them showing the grain of the wood, or may be 
painted and enameled to suit the surroundings and the 
needs of the classes. Birch, maple, even pine, cedar, or 
redwood furniture may be finished acceptably in either 
of these fashions, but should never be made to masquer- 
ade as mahogany or rosewood. 

The provision of an open fireplace in the dining-room 
has been found in some places an admirable addition 
to the cozy and attractive appearance of the room. An 
example of this treatment somewhat too formally carried 
out is shown in Figure 426. 

Serving Equipment. The quantity of china, silver, 



glassware, and linen required for a given school will 
depend largely upon their collateral use for other than 
teaching purposes. If the serving of lunch for teachers 
regularly, or the occasional dinner for large groups, is 
contemplated, tableware must be provided accordingly. 
For teaching purposes alone, service for six is ordinarily 
considered sufficient. This is true particularly when the 
individual serving outfit suggested previously is pro- 
vided in connection with the cooking unit. 

It is not necessary to list here the minimum of types 
of dishes, glassware, silver, and linen required for the 
equipment of the serving unit, since common sense and 




Fig. 41S 



Electrical Equipment Used in the University of New Mexico. 



the experience of eating as well as serving meals will 
suffice to remind the reader of possible desirable additions. 
The quality in all cases should be of such character as to 
establish proper standards of taste in the minds of the 
students, but need by no means represent the outlay 
called for by expensive French china, Irish linen, and 
solid silver. Gay and beautiful patterns in semi- 
vitreous porcelain are obtainable, and are preferable to 
the monotonous and ugly durable dishes so often found 
in school dining-rooms. A bit less durability coupled 
with more endurability may well be found educationally 
efficient. A fair quality of linen of bold and handsome 
pattern might well be substituted for the severely plain 
covers so often used. In communities where the kitchen 
oilcloth and turkey-red cover are the rule in the homes, 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




19. — Cooking-room, Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



the cheapest sort of unbleached muslin attractively 
stenciled or stitched in the domestic art classes, plain 
white cotton damask, Japanese toweling, or other 
simple runner material might be used to indicate possible 
improvement without added expense. 

When electric current is available at a reasonable price, 
one or two electric outlets in the floor or wall beside the 
dining table, and a representative article or two to illus- 
trate the table use of electricity should be provided. 
An electrically heated coffee urn or percolator, toaster, 
or grill are appliances which are of considerable con- 
venience and increasing availability. 

Establishment of Standards of Taste. In choosing 
the table-service equipment the limitations of poverty 
and taste in the homes of the community should not 
be allowed to interfere too seriously with the introduction 
of the idea of higher standards of living among the 
students. In addition to poverty, lack of knowledge 
of, and desire for the more refined type of table service, 
as of other marks of good taste, sometimes may account 
for the existence of deplorable living conditions, par- 
ticularly among immigrants. Discontent of the student 
with immediate home conditions may therefore be a 
lesser evil than the continuance of the ignorance which 
helped to produce such homes. Emphasis should, of 
course, be placed wherever possible upon the use of the 
least expensive means to bring about the desired result 
in comfort, harmony, and good taste, but the estab- 



lishment of good standards of living in the real sense, 
apart from luxury or showiness, should never be sacri- 
ficed to unfortunate existing conditions. 

Service with no Dining-room. If no space is available 
for a separate dining-room, provision should be made 
for practice in serving meals in the cooking unit. In 
the laboratory desk type of kitchen, space for this 
purpose may be difficult to obtain if the tables are ar- 
ranged in parallel rows. In Figure 412 dining tables- 
could be improvised in the four corners shown occupied 
by supply tables ; in Figure 403, representing the horseshoe 
or hollow-square arrangement, the dining table might 
be placed within the square. With the unit kitchen 
type of arrangement, practice in service is much more 
easily arranged, since the space in the center of the open 
side of each unit may be utilized for this purpose. 
This is illustrated in Figures 401, 407, 423. 

The Laundry Unit. Some provision should certainly 
be made for the teaching of the simple operations and 
the underlying principles of laundering in every scheme 
of home economics education. In this as in the other 
fields already discussed, both domestic and commercial 
types of equipment and performance need to be included. 
It is of interest to note that in England and Canada 
domestic-science educators have always placed a good 
deal of emphasis upon the science and art of laundering, 
nearly as much time being spent on this subject as upon 
food preparation. In the United States until very 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



495 



recently but little thought has been given to the matter, 
although a few training schools have equipped elaborate 
laundries. It would seem wise and reasonable, however, 
to give to so necessary and so tedious a form of drudgery 
such dignity and assistance as a few lessons in the house- 
hold science course will afford. 

The amount of time spent in this way will be governed 
by the nature of the training sought, and by the character 
of the students instructed. In certain schools and lo- 



calities only the simplest domestic type of laundry need 
be taught, while in others careful preparation of the 
girls for employment in commercial laundries is justified. 
The ever-growing tendency toward the specialization 
of this work and its performance outside the home must 
be considered by the domestic science teacher. 

As was mentioned in the discussion of the cooking-unit 
equipment, separated and analyzed processes should be 
carried out in order that the student may acquire in- 



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496 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



telligence in the control of the conditions of her work 
rather than merely rule-of-thumb skill by repetition of 
the task. In order to do this in the case of laundering 
instruction, the composition and physical properties of 
various types of water, soap, washing powders, starch 
and blueings, the structure of the textiles, and the 
reaction of common classes of dyes to different kinds of 
cleaning treatment, should be studied. The writer 
recalls asking the laundry instructor in a certain state 
university why pongee remains spotted when it has been 




Fig. 421. — Type of Ready-made Movable Cabinet. 



sprinkled before being ironed, and the answer, given with 
impressive authority, was that pongee silks must be 
ironed " bone-dry." Nothing further was forthcoming 
and no explanation was evidently felt to be necessary. 
Such a state of mind naturally results from the teaching 
of " complete and approved methods " of laundering, 
or cooking, or engineering, or any similar process. 

The equipment for teaching laundry in a scientific 
way should include besides the tubs, wringers, washing 
machines and other appliances, full sets of chemical and 
other testing apparatus for the demonstration of the 
properties of the various cleansing materials and fabrics 
under consideration. This apparatus may, if necessary, 
be shelved and used in the foods laboratory which, if 
equipped with the chemical apparatus mentioned, will 
serve for much of the testing work done in the launder- 
ing lessons. Similarly certain parts of the apparatus 
provided in the sewing unit may be called into use for 
this purpose. The ironing-boards and irons, as well as 
the hand lens or microscopes used in the study of textiles, 
may serve in common the two uses. 

In any case, separate space, however small, should be 



assigned for instruction in laundry problems if only to 
emphasize the need for eliminating laundry work from 
the home kitchen. 

Size of Room. Smaller classes than those usually 
planned for the cookery courses must be organized for 
laundry instruction, usually not more than twelve to 
sixteen in a section. The room should therefore be 
large enough to accommodate four to six batteries of 
two tubs each, and the same number of ironing-boards 
and washing-machines, in addition to space for the 
built-in drier, the mangle, and stoves. A set of specially 
designed storage cupboards to hold the outfit needed 
by each student or group of students in carrying out 
laundering processes should be provided, along with 
small individual lockers to be assigned to the students 
for the personal belongings inevitably left over from 
lesson to lesson. One supply cupboard may be suf- 
ficient for small classes, but individual lockers are almost 
as much a necessity as they are in the sewing-room. 

Floor space six by three feet in size should be allowed 
for each two students' washing apparatus, and three by 
four feet for each ironing-board. The drier may be 
built into a corner and occupy from 2 to 6 by 4 feet 
floor space. The mangle will vary in size, usually not 
exceeding 2 to 4 feet. Armchairs, or benches for class 
use, well illustrated in Figure 427, the teacher's desk, 
and two or three double burner gas stoves, or a small wood 
or coal laundry stove will take up the remainder of the 
space. The individual lockers may be built under the 
windows and need be only 12" deep X 18" wide X 30" 
to 40" high. This size admits hangers for waists and 
skirts without doubling them up. 

In addition a laboratory desk of the type shown in 
Figure 420 with space for four to twelve students and 
equipped with sinks or trough, gas outlets, and hot and 
cold water supply is needed for the scientific testing 
work. In Figure 428, in a room 30' X 26' in size, is shown 
an advantageous and complete arrangement of a de- 
sirable equipment for the teaching of domestic and in- 
stitutional or commercial laundry work. A smaller 
number of washing-machines, tubs, and ironing-boards 
may be used than that shown, but in order to make the 
subject worthy of school attention at all, the labor-saving 
devices and scientific testing must in some degree be 
included. 

Walls and Floors. The walls must be constructed of 
waterproof and washable material similar to that men- 
tioned in the discussion of the cooking unit. Tile or 
hard plaster are usually chosen. The floor should be 
provided with a drain and be made of composition or 
cement, covered with linoleum or rubber mats. 

Good lighting and ventilation are particularly in- 
dispensable in the laundry room. A canopy similar 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



497 



to that suggested for the cooking stove may be installed 
over the boilers or tubs, and a good flue should be 
connected with the drier. An excellent example of 
such ventilation is seen in the laundry laboratory at the 
Teachers College, Columbia University, Figure 429. 

Equipment. 1 Stationary tubs or trays of porcelain 
or vitrified clay should be installed in groups of two with 
drains and hot and cold water outlets. If a single faucet 
is used the water may be carried into the adjacent 
washing machine more easily by means of a length of 
rubber hose. These tubs should be set at the right 



A good quality of ball-bearing wringer either at- 
tached to the machine or set up at each pair of tubs, 
a simple cold mangle, a gas heated or electrically 
operated mangle, are desirable additions to the laundry 
equipment. 

In rural districts an outdoor clothesline or revolving 
drier may profitably be installed in a convenient court 
or yard, but for most schools the drier will have to be 
of the indoor type. Clotheshorses or wall driers may, 
of course, be utilized if necessary, but require more 
space than is ordinarily available. The built-in drier 



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A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABINET 



Fig. 42; 



height for students of the size who are to use them, and 
may vary in height if classes of varying ages are expected. 
Portable tubs on benches may indeed be utilized in 
temporary or made-over quarters, but are not desirable 
for school use if stationary apparatus can be obtained. 

A large variety of washing machines operated by 
hand, water power, or electricity are now offered in the 
market, and samples of such kinds as are available to 
the community should be included in the school equip- 
ment. So far as possible machines of various types, 
such as rotary, suction, corrugated, as well as those 
driven by different modes should be used. These ma- 
chines may serve also as illustrative of the power machines 
in large laundries for vocational classes. 



1 For further details of equipment of the laundry laboratory, ! 
Street, Philadelphia. 



with flue heated by the school heating plant or by sl 
small attached stove forms in most cases the efficient 
solution of this problem. 

Wherever ironing-boards can be hinged to the walls 
and supported by a hinged leg when in use, they would 
best be installed that way, since the space can be utilized 
for other purposes when the boards are not in use. 
Heavy stationary iron standards such as are shown in 
Figure 430 are also acceptable. Separate sleeve boards 
should be provided in addition to the large board. 
Irons heated by the most convenient form of fuel in 
use in the community should be used. Electric irons, 
of course, are preferable for convenience and efficiency, 
since they furnish an even, easily regulated heat. Gas, 

Laundering, by L. R. Balderston, published by L. R. Balderston, 1224 Cherry 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 423. — Cooking-room, Junior High School, Trenton, New Jersey. 



charcoal, or alcohol irons are sometimes advisable, and 
the ordinary stove-heated sadirons occasionally are the 
only kind available. 

Clothes boilers, or a steam jet in the tubs, wash- 
boards of various types, sprinklers, starch kettles, clothes 
sticks, iron rests, iron holders, and clothes baskets are 
other necessary articles for the school laundry. All of 
these should be stored in properly designed cupboards 
when not in use. 

The spaces for holding the various articles to be stored 
should be carefully proportioned to their uses and la- 
beled. The largest spaces must be for the boiler and 
basket, within each of which certain smaller articles 
can be kept. 

The Housekeeping and Home Nursing Unit. The 
problem of the provision in schools of the most efficient 
equipment for the teaching of all those arts and technique 
and principles involved in the care and furnishing of 
the house and in the home care of children and the sick 
has long been a difficult one to solve. It cannot be 
claimed that any universally satisfactory conclusion 
has so far been reached, nor is there any general agree- 
ment upon a working scheme for such instruction. 

The most obvious answer to the question of equipment 



for this work is the practice apartment, or practice house. 
Many schools have installed such apartments with 
varying success. In certain districts where immigrants 
are numerous and the economic level is rather low these 
apartments or cottages have served as excellent social 
centers and Americanizing influences. Among the more 
prosperous and intelligent districts, however, they have 
been for the most part unused. In any case, such an 
apartment if built into the school in an isolated part 
of the building, accessible only to the students of the 
home economics courses and not occupied as an actual 
living place, is apt to take on an institutional and show 
character not compatible with the carrying out of the 
objects for which it was planned. Its furnishings are 
fixed and immovable and its use as a laboratory for 
house decoration is apt to be discouraged because of 
the expense involved in change. 

A detached house near the school building presents 
some features which are advantageous but some which 
are distinctly objectionable. The isolation which makes 
it distinctive in character may prove a detriment by 
separating the work done there too completely from 
the rest of the school routine. Occasionally such a 
practice cottage may be used to advantage as living 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



499 



unobtrusive neutral tone, since they must act as a back- 
ground for the hangings, rugs, papers, etc., to be dis- 
played in the furnishing discussions. The floor should 
be finished, if possible, in oak or other hard wood, well 
waxed, since it is not unimaginable that it might some- 
times be used for dancing. A number of exhibit cabinets 
with glass doors and fitted with narrow shelves should 
be built into the walls of the room. These cabinets 
offer a safe and usable storage space for the large variety 



quarters for one or more teachers or other persons con- 
nected with the school. In these cases rather more 
convincing working conditions may be attained, but it 
is obvious that as a continued plan the arrangement has 
its disadvantages. 

Occasionally in high schools as in colleges or normal 
schools, groups of students are taken into the practice 
house to live for a given period and to discharge all 
the duties of the housekeeper under the supervision of a 
teacher. The writer questions the educational sound- 
ness of this plan, and certainly its difficulty of practical 
execution is plain. It would seem more rational than 
either of these schemes to provide for the housekeeping 
lessons a real laboratory in which separated and analyzed 
processes, rather than unthinking " skills," may be 
taught. The yearning for the exact atmosphere of the 
home which seems to dominate many home economics 
teachers may involve a greater sacrifice of efficiency than 
the momentary consistency will justify. Thus a labora- 
tory for the housewifery course equipped with numerous 
samples of textiles, woods, cleaning mixtures, labor- 
saving devices, plumbing plans, and samples may offer 
a good deal more of lasting value to the student than a 
nicely furnished practice apartment with only one kind 
of floor, wall finish, plumbing, and other appurtenances. 1 
The same criticism might apply to a suite of rooms to be 
used for house-furnishing classes. The writer believes 
that the latter course would best be given in a large well- 
lighted studio, filled with various property sets of doors, 
windows, floors, and with very little resemblance to a 
furnished home. A valuable feature of this type of 
work should be the excursions to furniture stores, 
museums, and private homes whenever possible. In- 
deed a very useful course might be given in this way 
without set school equipment. 

The Community Room. In Figure 401 is shown a 
large living room with fireplaces, outside entrance, and 
connecting with a dining-room, which might serve as 
the studio for house-furnishing courses and the laboratory 
for the housewifery work. Its chief use, however, should 
be as a community social room, since it might serve as 
the center of the school life for students and teachers 
and parent teacher associations. For this reason it 
should be furnished with a goodly supply of simple 
comfortable chairs, with a rug or two, two or three tables, 
and possibly a piano. These articles are mentioned as 
valuable to the school rather than the home economics 
instruction, although they may be used occasionally 
in the latter. A convenient and charming social center 
for the school is shown in Figure 431 in the living-room 
of the Lux School in San Francisco. 

The walls of such a room should be finished in some school building or of the home economics wing or building. 

1 For further details of equipment of housewifery laboratory, see Houswifery, by L. R. Balderston, Lippincott, 1918. 




Mr. Wm. C. Hays, Architect. 

Fig. 424. — Teachers' Dining-room, Lux School, San 
Francisco, California. 

of sample collections which should form the background 
of the house management course. 

Occasionally furniture and hardware dealers are 
willing to loan pieces of furniture or fixtures for class- 
work and then to exchange these from time to time. 
This sort of cooperation, of course, is invaluable. The 
house-furnishing studio or community room would natu- 
rally be used for the exhibition of these loans. 

A few drawing boards or desks add considerably to 
the usefulness of such an exhibit room, and provision 
of steady light from more than one wall for the study of 
light effect on color is desirable. This room should con- 
sequently, if possible, be planned for a corner of the 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 425. — Teachers' Dining-room, Lux School, San Francisco, California. 



I. C. Hays, Architect. 



The Bedroom and Bathroom. A connecting suite of 
bedroom and bathroom are shown in Figure 401 as 
illustrating possible housing for the home nursing, per- 
sonal hygiene, or care of children lessons, which are 
now frequently included in even the junior high school 
course. These rooms should correspond in finish to 
those in the homes of the students, but should be con- 
siderably larger than those found in the usual residence. 
The bedroom when not in use for instruction in bed- 
making or housecleaning could serve as rest room for 
the teachers, or for tired or indisposed girl students. 
This is the case in the bedroom shown in Figure 432. 
Such a room should be equipped with a double and single 
bed, dressing table, crib, tables, and chairs. The walls 
should be neutral in color, the windows easily shaded, 
and the floor covered by a simple comfortable rug. 
Plenty of closet space should be provided for the storage 
of extra bedding and the home nursing supplies. The 
latter might well be kept in narrow wall cabinets with 
glass doors. A first-aid outfit which may be drawn upon 
for the use of the whole school in emergencies may be 
kept in this room, and used for demonstration purposes. 



Teaching Care of Children. Such equipment as is 
required for teaching the care of children should be 
stored and used in these rooms also. This should in- . 
elude a large doll with complete infant's clothing outfit, 
bathtub, brushes, crib, and feeding utensils. 

The services of a real baby and its mother should be 
secured for at least some of these lessons, since the 
handling of a live infant in bathing, dressing, and feed- 
ing may involve difficulties not presented by the doll. 
Whenever possible a day nursery or hospital in the 
neighborhood should be called upon for assistance in 
providing practice in these matters. 1 

The bathroom shown in Figure 401 has been planned 
to offer all variety of equipment in the way of baths, 
such as sitz, foot, shower, which are used in professional 
nursing, as well as the usual home facilities, because of 
the possible pre-nursing instruction which may well 
be given in some schools to girls who plan on entering 
a hospital training school. In smaller schools less varied 
bath equipment is acceptable. 

It will be noted that all of these rooms which serve 
the various purposes here outlined when taken together 



1 See further suggestions in Cooley, Winchell, Sphor and Marshall. Teaching Home Economics — Macmillan, 1918. 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 




henley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



form an apartment or complete living quarters. The 
reason is obvious, in that processes are to be explained 
and learned which are connected individually with all the 
types of rooms which a family needs for comfortable 
living. The provision of a suite of rooms to represent 
an apartment independently of such intensive use of 
each of these rooms as is here indicated seems to the 
writer indefensible. 

The standard of furnishing and scale of living possible 
in the homes of the pupils must be kept in mind con- 
stantly in planning the details of this part of the de- 
partment. It should be noted, however, that the object 
of all instruction should be analysis and understanding 
of processes and the acquiring of standards of taste, 
rather than immediate skill in accomplishment, and that 
therefore the slavish reproduction of the student's 
home conditions is neither necessary nor desirable. 
The case of vocational and trade training presents a 
slightly different problem, involving more immediate 
provision of manual technique. 



The Clothing Unit. The development of the teach- 
ing of sewing, dressmaking, and millinery in the schools 
has been truly astonishing in recent years. Partly be- 
cause of the rising prices of labor of all kinds a con- 
siderable impetus toward the home construction of at 
least simpler blouses, skirts, dresses, and hats seems to 
have occurred. To meet this tendency more and more 
classes in sewing have been organized for both school- 
girls and older women. For obvious reasons these 
courses are very often elected by girl students in prefer- 
ence to many of the more academic studies, whenever 
the choice is uninfluenced by such considerations as 
vocational or college preparatory necessities. How far 
the natural desire of the schoolgirl for the extra clothing 
made in this way should be allowed to interfere with 
the provision of less easily acquired mental training is a 
problem of considerable interest and difficulty of solution. 

In spite of the larger numbers enrolled of late in sewing 
classes the tendency in both junior and senior high 
school clothing courses is and should be toward greater 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 427. — Laundry Room, Lux School, San Francisco, California. 



emphasis upon problems of purchasing, the economic 
condition of the garment-making trades, good taste in 
design and color, and away from the apportionment of 
much time for the acquisition of technique in hand and 
machine sewing, dressmaking, and drafting. Trade or 
vocational sewing classes in which power-machine work, 
machine hemstitching, and similar operations are taught 
constitute an important exception. 

In the equipment of the clothing unit, therefore, pro- 
vision should be made for textile testing and exhibits, 
sketching and draping on the one hand, and for power 
machines on the other. If vocational sewing courses 
are given they should be housed in a separate room from 
those occupied by the usual high school or grammar 
grade classes. The equipment to be provided for the 
latter may be divided into the following groups : 

1. Textile testing and exhibits. 

2. Drawing and modeling apparatus. 

3. Sewing apparatus. 

1. Textile Apparatus. Cabinets. Glass cabinets of 
the type mentioned in the description of the house- 
keeping unit are useful for the display of textile fibers, 
charts showing processes of manufacture, small models 



of weaving apparatus, and similar illustrative material. 
Storage space in cupboards with shallow deep drawers 
and adjustable shelves must also be provided for ma- 
terials not at the moment on exhibition. A filing case 
for samples of cloth adds considerably to the efficiency 
of the textile work. 

Laboratory Table. For the physical and chemical 
testing of fabrics which may well be introduced into the 
high school clothing course, a laboratory table of the 
kind described in the laundry unit discussion is of con- 
siderable value, provided no properly equipped laundry 
laboratory is at hand. It is unnecessary to duplicate 
this table in laundry and textile room, but it is usually 
wise not to rely for this purpose on the use of equipment 
in the cooking unit, since classes are often scheduled 
at the same time for cooking and sewing work. In 
small schools, however, the equipment in the cooking 
room if properly chosen should serve for the textile 
testing. 

Provision for running water with sinks and gas outlets 
is necessary for this laboratory desk. Ordinarily one 
double table 10 feet long and 5 feet wide, accommodating 
10 to 12 students at a time, is adequate. The table 




O d 



o 



5°4 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



should be inclosed below for storage of apparatus and 
chemicals in the usual laboratory fashion. It is en- 
tirely possible to equip the usual large cutting table in 
this way, with sinks let into the top under smooth board 
covers, and gas outlets below the top ; see Figure 436. 

Testing Apparatus. Powerful hand lenses, or low 
power microscopes, acid and alkali bottles, beakers, 
Bunsen burners, wire gauzes, tripods, clay triangles, are 
the chief pieces of apparatus needed for the qualitative 
tests possible for high school classes. 

2. Drawing and Modeling Apparatus. The usual 
precautions observed in planning drawing rooms should 
be remembered in arranging the lighting of the clothing 
unit. North light is usually considered steadier and 
better for drawing, but sometimes this advantage is 
best sacrificed to the cheer 

of occasional sunlight, par- 
ticularly in the case of 
grammar grade classes. 
In any case the light 
should fall over the left 
shoulder of the worker, 
and should be plentiful. 
Provision of adequate 
artificial lighting must 
also be carefully made, 
since afternoon and eve- 
ning classes in these sub- 
jects are frequently or- 
ganized. 

Drawing Apparatus. 
Drawing boards, either 
set in the usual adjustable 
fashion on pedestals, or 
supported on the sewing tables by adjustable blocks, 
should form part of the clothing unit equipment. These 
boards, and boxes of paints, pencils, rulers, etc., may be 
stored when not in use in a wall cabinet of the fifing case 
type (see Figure 436) designed for this purpose. In 
Figure 434 is shown a class using such drawing boards 
in making preliminary sketches for a millinery lesson, 
and in Figure 435 for costume design work. 

It need hardly be said that the clothing teacher should 
be thoroughly trained in art methods and technique 
before attempting such work as is implied here. In 
some cases the drawing and designing portion of the 
courses might best be given in cooperation with the 
art classes. 

3. Sewing Apparatus. Walls and floor. The walls 
of the rooms used for the clothing classes may well be 
decorated attractively, since they are not apt to be ex- 
posed to fumes or steam. Calcimine in a subdued gray- 
brown, tan, gray-green, or similar tone, or a two-toned 







wall paper might be used, with wood trim in natural 
color and dull waxed finish. Washable glass-curtains of 
scrim or pongee if kept immaculate add greatly to the 
attractiveness of the windows': 

The floor should be of oak or other hard wood, if 
possible, in order to avoid the oiled dirt-catching danger 
of the soft woods used in other parts of the building. 

Cabinets. In no other schoolroom is there greater 
need for properly planned cupboard space than in the 
sewing-rooms. Individual lockers must be assigned 
students for work in course of construction, and these 
lockers must be of the right size and shape to receive 
the articles apt to be made. At least three kinds of 
locked cupboards should be available, (a) for dresses 
and coats, (b) for hats, (c) for flat work, underwear, etc. 

(a) Cupboards to re- 
ceive dresses and coats 
on hangers should be 24 
inches deep and 64 inches 
high inside measurement, 
with a single rod running 
downthe'center two inches 
from the top upon which 
the hangers are hooked. 
The doors to these cup- 
boards may be of wood 
or glass, and if smoothly 
sliding save floor space in 
opening. These cases may 
be used for exhibit pur- 
poses to advantage if glass 
doors are specified. 

(b) Hat cupboards de- 
signed to hold four to six 

hats on raised forms, similar in construction to a hat 
trunk, are most economical of space. Usually four or 
five rows of these boxes built three or four deep are ade- 
quate, and provide a space each of about 20" X 20" X 20" 
inside measurement. 

(c) The drawers for flat work offer the best choice 
of space for individual lockers and students' equipment 
boxes. If these drawers are 26"Xi9"X6" inside 
measurement, they are found to be satisfactory for a 
large number of articles. Enough locked drawers should 
be provided so that each student may have one for her 
exclusive use, and these drawers should be fitted into 
the spaces under the sewing table during the progress 
of the lesson. In Figure 433 the detail of an economical 
and complete combination of these cabinets is given. 

Dress form closet. A closet for the dress forms must 
be provided, and this is perhaps best built into the walls 
of the fitting room. Such a closet needs to be 5 feet 
6 inches in height and only 18 inches deep (5' 6"Xi8"), 



Laundry Laboratory, Teachers College, Columbl 
University. 



So6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 431. — Household Arts Classroom, Lux School, San Francisco, California. 



if sufficient wall space is available to store the forms in a 
single row. This depth must be doubled or trebled if 
the forms must be stored in two or three rows. Sliding 
doors or a number of narrow hinged doors are necessary 
for these closets. A shelf cupboard of the same depth, 
but 3 feet high, built over the flat- work drawer cabinet 
serves to hold the waist forms. 

Tables. Sewing-tables may be provided large enough 
to accommodate 1 to 6 students, but usually individual 
or double tables are chosen if space is available. Single 
tables should be s'Xs', and 2' 6" high, double tables 
6'Xs', or more economically made up of two single 
tables. If a drop leaf 2 feet long be hinged to the 
narrow end of the tables so arranged that when the leaf 
is raised a single long table is constructed from each row, 
the best possible cutting table will be provided. (See 
Figure 436.) The sewing-tables are easily constructed of 
sugar pine, maple, birch or other semi-hard wood and 
should be finished with a stain to match the wood trim 
or the walls of the room. Spaces for the insertion of 
the locked individual drawers described above should be 
provided below the top of these tables and opposite each 
student's place. During the lesson the drawer may be 



kept conveniently in these spaces, and stored in the wall 
cabinet at other times. 

Drafting and cutting tables 7' X3' X2' 8" high are 
sometimes provided, particularly in trade-sewing rooms, 
but for most schools are no longer considered indis- 
pensable. If such a table is provided, it should be 
equipped with sinks and gas piping for use in textile 
testing, as previously described. 

Mirrors. Flat wall mirrors, triple full length movable 
mirrors, 4' long, are usually used in the fitting-room or 
in a screened corner of the sewing-room. Hand mirrors 
and small triple mirrors should be provided in addition. 

Machines. Both single and double thread sewing 
machines and at least one with electric motor should be 
available. Electric wall plugs should be convenient 
to all machines. Five or six machines are usually 
sufficient for any ordinary-sized sewing class, that is, 
one machine to three or four students. 

Chairs. Bent-wood chairs with cane seats are the 
favorite choice for the sewing-room because of their 
lightness and durability. Any light wooden chairs, 
stained to match the tables, may be used. 

One or two ironing-boards, hinged to the wall inside 



THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 




Fig. 432. — Teachers' Rest Room, Lux School, San Francisco, California 



a shallow cupboard or supported on a stout collapsible 
frame and adjacent to electric outlets equipped with a 
red incandescent light as current indicator, must be 
specified. Electric irons of varying weights may be 
stored when not in use in these same shallow cupboards. 
A two-burner gas plate and sink near the ironing-board 
are convenient for many fitting, cleaning, dyeing, and 
pressing purposes. 

A generous-sized blackboard, bulletin board, pinking 
machine, burlap demonstration frame, teacher's desk, 
bookshelf or bookcase, paper roller, and a folding screen 
or two complete the list of the larger appliances neces- 
sary in the sewing-room. Such small articles as tape 
measures, yardsticks, skirt rules, thimbles, tracing wheels, 
wire cutters, etc., either are assigned to students to be 
kept in individual lockers or are stored when not in use 
in drawers under the sewing-table tops or in wall cup- 
boards. 

The fitting-room. If a separate fitting-room can be 

1 For further details of the Equipment and Use of the Clothing 
Scribner, 1911. 



provided, considerable extra convenience and value will 
be attained. Sometimes a fitting-room may be econom- 
ically planned to occupy the space between two sewing- 
rooms. If no fitting-room is allowed, a corner of the 
sewing-room must be screened off for this purpose. One 
or two fitting pedestals, a screen, a triple wall or movable 
mirror, a flat wall mirror, one or two chairs or benches 
are all the furnishing necessary. In Figures 403, 433, 
436 the details of convenient fitting-rooms are shown. 
The dress-form closet is often conveniently built into 
the walls of this room. 1 

Trade-Sewing Equipment. If vocational or Smith- 
Hughes trade-sewing classes are organized in the school, 
a separate classroom should be planned for them, if 
possible. Since this work is treated in detail in the 
chapter on Vocational Education (Chapter VIII), but 
few comments need to be made upon it here. 

The trade-sewing room should be equipped with a 
shaft supplying power to four or five sewing machines, 

Unit, see Domestic Art in Woman's Education, by Anna M. Cooley, 




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THE HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 



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Fig. 434. — Household Arts Drawing Room, Lux School, San Francisco, California. 



with individual wall or floor electric outlets for the power 
machines, hemstitching, and finishing machines. Large 
cutting tables, comfortable chairs, and carefully ad- 
justed lighting fixtures are also necessary parts of this 
equipment. It is desirable here to duplicate the gar- 
ment-making trade conditions, so far as can be done 
without sacrifice of comfort and efficiency in teaching. 
Figure 437 shows an excellent type of sewing-room 



to school conditions, yet providing all the 
appliances for trade training. 

It is understood, of course, that all the equipment 
previously described as indispensable for general sewing 
and clothing construction teaching should be accessible 
to the trade classes, since the manipulation of the power 
machines must be considered merely one important 
detail in the trade-sewing instruction. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

Fig. 435. — Costume Designing Classroom, Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, California. 





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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 437. — Trade Sewing-room, Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, California. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
THE CAFETERIA 

By William R. Adams, Engineer of Hotel Equipment Department, Mangrum Otter Company, Inc., San Francisco, 

California 

I. The Kitchen, (i) The Bake Oven. (2) The Range. (3) The Cook's Table. (4) The Saucepan Rack. (5) The Cook's Sink. 
(6) The Meat-cutting Block. (7) The Power P'ood Chopper. (8) The Mixing Machine. (9) The Power Vegetable-peeling Machine. 
(10) The Vegetable Preparation Table, (nj The Dish-washing Machine. (12) The Dish Tables. (13) The Pot Sink. (14) The 
Tray and Glass-washing Sink. II. The Storeroom. III. The Cold-storage Room. IV. The Dining-room. (1) The Serving 
Counter. (2) The Steam Table. (3) The Hot-water Pan. (4) The Dish-warming Compartment. (5) The Cold-drink Section. 
(6) The Urn. (7) The Tray Slide. (8) The Checking Table. (9) The Drinking-fountain. 

combination of which, if properly designed, will mean a 
perfect working system. First, and above all, proper 
sanitation must be obtained both in fixtures themselves 
and in the general arrangement of the fixtures. There 
must be ample space around each one of them to allow 
for thorough cleaning of the floor and wall. The sinks 
and other equipment that are set against the walls 
should be so placed that there can be no pockets for the 
accumulation of dirt. Second, the whole arrangement 
must be pleasing to the eye. Third, the plant must be 
efficient ; there must be no loss of labor, food, or fuel. 

The dining-room should be large enough to accom- 
modate the maximum number of persons to be served, 
that is, from one-third to one-half of the school enroll- 
ment. In form (see Figures 438, 439, 440, and 441) it 
should be either rectangular or square. If the maximum 
number of persons to be served at one sitting is six hun- 
dred, the room should have the dimensions of 90' X 100', 
including the space required for the traffic aisles and the 
serving counter. Access to the serving counters should 
be had by means of traffic aisles, leading directly from 
the entrance door, past the food, to the checker's sta- 
tion. These traffic aisles should be 4' in width, and 
should, of course, be railed off from the dining-room 
proper. 

The Kitchen. — The kitchen, if it is to be really 
serviceable, will be found in a position adjoining the 
dining-room, somewhere to the rear of the serving 
counters, and located centrally if possible. Passage 
between the dining-room and the kitchen can be pro- 
vided by means of large double swinging doors of size 
3' 6". These will permit the moving of trucks in and 
out without any danger of jamming. The kitchen should 
be large enough to accommodate without congestion 



There is no longer any question of the necessity of 
having a lunch room in an up-to-date high school. This 
is especially true for large city high schools and for union 
district schools to which the students come from long 
distances. Nor is the lunch room merely a place where 
cold food brought from home may be eaten. It is a 
department of the school organized for the purpose of 
maintaining the health of the pupils through their eat- 
ing, very much as the physical education department 
cares for their health through exercise. It must be a 
place where the student can obtain warm, wholesome 
food, served in an appetizing manner and at a reason- 
able price. Its construction must provide for pleasant 
surroundings and proper ventilation. The best arrange- 
ment to meet all these conditions is the cafeteria, or, as 
it might be termed, the self-serving lunch room. 

In order to provide good food at a price as near as 
possible the actual cost, it is necessary to cut down 
to a minimum the amount of paid help. It is possible 
to do this under the cafeteria system because, in the 
first place, each individual serves himself, and secondly, 
student helpers can be employed in assisting behind the 
serving counter and in returning soiled dishes to the 
dish-washer. The work of the student helpers will cost 
only the price of their meals. Thus the paid help for 
a school of about eighteen hundred students can be 
reduced to about five in the kitchen and four in the 
dining-room. Those in the kitchen should consist of 
the cook and his assistant, the baker, the dish-washer, 
and the general utility man. The four in the dining- 
room should be occupied mostly with the serving counter. 

In the designing of the cafeteria and in the manufac- 
ture and installation of its various fixtures, there are 
many things that must be constantly in mind, the 



THE CAFETERIA 



5i5 



all the fixtures necessary in carrying on the work. On 
the other hand, it should not be so large that it will re- 
quire any unnecessary labor in the preparation of the 
food. Proper lighting must be secured either by well- 
placed windows or by skylights. All windows and 
doors opening into the kitchen should be of the self- 
closing type, and they should be thoroughly protected 
against flies and dust. When fly screens are used, the 
screen should consist of about 196 squares to a square 
inch. Thorough ventilation must be provided, by 
mechanical means when the ordinary natural method 
is not satisfactory. 

It is good practice to keep all the kitchen work, in- 
cluding vegetable preparation and dish-washing, in one 
room, thereby doing away with all partitions, elimi- 
nating ugly corners and dirt pockets, and keeping the 
whole system under the eye of the chef, who should be 
in full charge of the kitchen work, and responsible for 
its neatness. 

The kitchen equipment should include the following : 
bake oven, range, ventilating canopy, cook's table, 
pot rack, cook's sink, cutting block, power food chopper, 
power vegetable peeler, power mixing machine, vege- 
table preparation table and sink, dish-washing ma- 
chine with scrapping and clean-dish tables, pot sink, 
. tray, and glass-washing sink. 



The Bake Oven. — The bake oven should be of the 
portable type and capable of turning out about 100 
1 -pound loaves of bread per baking, This type of oven 
can be obtained to burn gas, wood, or coal. 

The Range. — -The range should be about io' long 
and of a type best adapted to burn the cheapest and 
easiest obtainable fuel. Gas is the most commonly 
used fuel, but there are localities where coal, wood, 
or fuel oil is used exclusively. The range should have 
three ovens, each capable of accommodating two 22" X 
22" roast pans, one on bottom and one on shelf. If 
there is no hot-water system provided, hot water may be 
obtained by fitting the range with a water back and con- 
necting the latter to a hot-water storage tank. This 
means of heating should not, however, be resorted to 
unless it is absolutely necessary, as it has not been found 
entirely satisfactory. 

The canopy over the range should be made of iron, 
galvanized iron preferred, and should extend at least 1' 
beyond the front and ends of range. It should be about 
30" high, with the lower edge of the front and ends 
6' 4." in clear from the floor. A ventilating stack made 
of galvanized iron should extend from the center of the 
top of the canopy to a proper height above the roof of 
the building, and there be fitted with a cap. This stack 
should be about 16" diameter. If mechanical means of 







PUN OF CAflTLlLlA. fOL A SMU HIGH SCHOOL 



Fig. 439. 



5i6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 440. — Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 



ventilation are used, a pipe 12" in diameter will be 
sufficient. Whenever the pipe runs near woodwork, 
precaution should be taken to insure against fire, as the 
accumulation of grease in such pipes is very inflammable 
and might cause serious results should it become ig- 
nited. 

The Cook's Table. — The cook's table is placed about 
4' in front of the range. It should be about 12' X4' X34", 
with the top made of the best grade of selected ash, 
set together and held tight with glued-in wooden dowels. 
A " bain marie " about 4'X2o"Xc/', set into the top, 
is a very handy arrangement for keeping the food at 
the proper temperature, until it is carried to the serv- 
ing table in the dining-room. This pan should be made 
of either heavy cold rolled copper or of No. 16 galvanized 
iron. It should have a perforated false bottom, made 
of the same material and set 1" clear of the bottom so 
that the food utensils will have a free circulation of hot 
water all around. The water should be kept at a proper 
temperature, using either steam heating coils, set into 
the pan, or gas burners of proper size placed under the 
pan. There should be a \" hot-water inlet for filling, 
and \\" standing waste outlet for draining. 



The cook's side of table should be provided with 
drawers for the cook's tools, etc. A galvanized iron 
latticed shelf, placed under the table and 10" clear of 
floor, is convenient for the accommodation of reserve 
pots and pans. 

The Saucepan Rack. — The saucepan rack of di- 
mensions 8' o"X2' o" should be constructed of ^''Xi|" 
iron bars and suspended from the ceiling about 5' o" 
above the cook's table. The best style of rack is the 
triple bar type, with the center bar inclined ; the higher 
end being level with the side members, and the lower end 
about 1' o" below. The pan hooks are riveted on, about 
1' o" apart. The hangers should be well cross-braced 
to prevent swaying. 

The Cook's Sink. — The cook's sink must be placed 
in a location convenient for the cook's use, preferably 
at one end of the cook's table. The sink should be made 
of galvanized iron not lighter than No. 14 gauge; its 
dimensions are about 30" X 24" X 33" with a depth of 16". 
All joints should be well riveted, soldered, and scraped 
smooth. The top edges of the sink should have a half 
oval galvanized iron band or a wrought iron riveted 
and soldered thereto ; the inside must be provided with 



THE CAFETERIA 



5i7 




Fig. 441. — New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. 



Fellows & Hamilton, Architects. 



a standing overflow waste outlet, protected by a remov- 
able corner strainer made of the same material as the 
sink ; this strainer prevents the food scraps from enter- 
ing and clogging the sewer. The sink should have four 
galvanized wrought-iron legs riveted to each corner 
and extending to floor. 

The Meat-cutting Block. — ■ THe meat-cutting block 
should be located near the meat compartment of the 
refrigerator, so that meat can be cut to suit needs and 
returned without permitting it to become warm. This 
block is made in standard sizes, but 30" X 30" X 17" 
is about the right size. It consists of a series of maple 
strips placed vertically, well glued and held together 
by iron rods running through and drawn up tight with 
nuts. The block is supported by four turned legs. 

The Power Food Chopper. — ■ The power food chopper 
(Figure 442) is placed near the meat block. This machine 
is a very convenient article of equipment and relieves 
the cook of the labor of chopping all meats and vege- 
tables ; in fact he is able to go on with his other work 
while the chopping is being done. 

The Mixing Machine. — The mixing machine (Figure 
443) might be termed a machine for all work, and, be- 
cause of its general use, it should be placed at a point 



easily accessible from all parts of the kitchen. It is 
used for the mixing of pastry, mashing of potatoes and 
other vegetables, straining of soups, and for many other 
things. An attachment is furnished for each different 
operation, together with two one-piece, tinned mixing 
bowls of about 30 and 80 quart capacity respectively. 

The Power Vegetable-peeling Machine. — ■ The power 
vegetable -peeling machine (Figure 444) should have a ca- 
pacity of about 30 pounds of potatoes at one charge ; 
this machine should be set near the vegetable compart- 
ment of the refrigerator and also near the vegetable 
table and sink. As water is constantly sprayed over 
the vegetables while they are being peeled, care must 
be taken to protect the electric motor. The machine 
must be equipped with a special guard for this purpose, 
or the motor must be set above and out of reach of water. 
This machine is provided with a waste outlet, but it is a 
better practice to have the discharge go into an open 
hopper rather than directly into the sewer. This ar- 
rangement eliminates the chance of sewer gas entering 
and mixing with the vegetables. 

The Vegetable Preparation Table. — The vegetable 
preparation table should be placed adjacent to the 
peeling machine and should be about 8' o"X2 r o". 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 442. — Power Food Chopper. 

Heavy galvanized iron with edges turned down all around 
makes a very satisfactory and sanitary top. The legs 
can be made of either galvanized wrought iron or gal- 
vanized pipe with flange at the bottom as desired. A 
removable ash cutting board should be provided for the 
cutting of vegetables and a sink with dimensions of 
about 24 // X2i"Xio" should be set flush 
with table top. Both sink and top should 
be of the same material. 

The Dish-washing Machine. — The 
washing and sterilizing of dishes and 
glasses is one feature of the whole system 
that should be given a great deal of con- 
sideration because of the danger of the 
spreading of disease if this work is not 
properly done. In fact, in many localities 
there are laws which require that the 
dishes and glasses used in restaurants and 
cafeterias be properly sterilized. The dish- 
washing machine (Figures 445 and 446) 
with the accompanying tubs should be 
set as near as possible to the exit door 
from the dining-room into the kitchen, so 
that soiled dishes can be immediately 
unloaded without having to cross the 
kitchen. This arrangement also leaves 
the clean dishes in a handy location for 
easy delivery to the serving tables. 

There are a number of dish-washing 



machines which are found to be very satisfactory, the 
inclosed stationary-dish type having perhaps more ad- 
• vantages than the open submerging type, as the break- 
age of dishes in the former is reduced to a very small 
percentage. This absence of breakage is due to the 
fact that the dishes are placed in wooden racks which 
hold them away from each other, the water being forced 
over them through washing jets. The water is supplied 
by means of a powerful electrically driven pump which 
is part of the machine. The rinsing is accomplished 
by use of spraying jets placed in such position that 
fresh water, direct from the boiler, is sprayed on the 
dishes from all points. 

The Dish Tables. — The soiled- and clean-dish tables 
(Figure 447) should be set up and connected to the dish- 
washing machine, one on each end ; the connection 
must be made watertight so that no leakage will occur 
at the junction. The clean-dish table should be so set 
that it will drain back into the machine. The soiled-dish 
table drain to a 2" waste outlet at some convenient point 
in order to allow the liquids from the dishes to separate 
from the solid matter. A 6" rubber top scrapping ring 
plug should be fitted into a hole at proper location in this 
table to take care of solid matter. This ring plug should 
extend above the table top to prevent the silver from fall- 
ing through into the garbage receptacle below. These 
tables should both be supported by 1" galvanized pipe 
legs with floor flanges. 

The Pot Sink. — The pot sink should be made of No. 
12 or No. 14 galvanized iron, having one washing and 




Fig. 443. — Mixing Machine. 



THE CAFETERIA 



5i9 



one rinsing compartment, each 30" X 24" X 16", fitted 
with a 2" standing overflow waste outlet. Each waste 
outlet should be protected by a sliding removable cor- 
ner strainer made of same material as the sink; this 
protects the waste lines from being clogged when the 
standing overflow plug is removed. A removable 
sliding pot rack should be furnished with the sink so 
that pots can be handled above the water line for the 
purpose of scraping. 




the pot sink should be connected to a water-cooled 
grease trap designed to catch the grease and allowing 
it to congeal therein instead of in the sewer pipes, thus 
reducing the danger of having them stopped up. 

The Tray and Glass -washing Sink. — The tray and 
glass-washing sink should be made of the same ma- 




Fig. 444. — Vegetable-peeling Machine. 

Two drain tables, one on each end and about 24" 
long and the width of the sink, should be rigidly con- 
nected thereto. The sink and drains should have a 10" 
high splash back at the wall, and the drains should be 
turned up 4" at the front and ends. The front of the 
drains and the sink should be reinforced by having a 
I oval galvanized iron band riveted and soldered to the 
top edge. The sink should be supported by galvanized 
wrought iron legs. 

The dish-washing machine, the soiled-dish table, and 



terial as the pot sink and should be constructed on the 
same plan, except that, instead of using a standing 
overflow waste plug in each compartment, a ground 
plug and chain should be fitted. The size of each com- 
partment should be about 24" X 24" X 17", this being 
of proper size to accommodate the i7"X22" trays, 
which is the size commonly used. 

The Storeroom. — The storeroom should be placed 
adjacent to the kitchen. It should be of sufficient 
size to store all supplies necessary for a period of at 



520 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



least thirty days, except those articles which can be 
taken care of in the refrigerator. A storeroom of this 
kind should be about 3o'X3o'. It should be well venti- 
lated and, if possible, lighted by natural light. The 
walls and ceiling should be finished in hard wall plaster 
or like material, and the floor finished in white tile or 
cement with a sanitary base. A line of shelves 20" 
wide should extend from the ceiling down each side of 




Fig. 446. — Large Dish- washing Machine. 

the room, and another line down the center. Under 
each set of shelves and 32" from floor should be placed a 
counter top about 2' 6" wide, under which it is a good 
practice to accommodate a number of portable bins 
for the storing of loose cereals, beans, peas, etc. These 
bins are made of either galvanized iron or wood, and are 
equipped with rubber-tired wheels so that they may be 
rolled out to any location when it is found necessary to 
refill them or to scrub the floor. 

The Cold-storage Room. — This room should be 
roomy enough to store supplies for about three days, 
and should be divided into three compartments : one 



for meats, one for dairy products, and one for fruits 
and vegetables. The meat compartment is usually 
of dimensions about 8' 6" X 6' o" X 6' 6" ; the other two 
compartments about 5' o // X6 / o"x6' 6". The three 
should be finished on the inside with a good grade of 
cement or white glazed tile. When these materials 
are not available, a suitable interior may be had by 
using a good grade of white spruce, T and G, giving it 
three coats of boiled linseed oil and rubbing it well be- 
tween the coats. The meat compartment should be 
fitted on two sides with 14" wide removable latticed 
shelves and on the other side with a double row of re- 
movable tinned meat hooks. The other compartments 
should be fitted with removable latticed shelves on 
one side only, leaving the other sides free for the storing 
of boxes, etc. The ice compartment should occupy 
all the space above the food compartments. Behind 
the refrigerator, there should extend a hallway into 
which the door of the compartment should open, thus 
eliminating the necessity of carrying ice through the 
kitchen. An iron hook, fixed in the ceiling above the 
ice compartment door, makes a very convenient arrange- 
ment to which the iceman may attach his tackle in 
raising the blocks of ice. 

The front of the cold storage room should be built 
flush with the kitchen wall and access be made possible 
by means of doors opening through the wall into the 
kitchen. The floor should be laid 6" higher than that 
of the kitchen to prevent water from entering the food 
compartments should any of the doors be left open 
when the kitchen is being scrubbed. The room should 
be located as far as is conveniently possible from the 
range and other cooking equipment. The outside of the 
refrigerator may be finished to match the kitchen and 
hallway walls, or in natural woods. 

The Dining-room. — The food, after being prepared 
in the kitchen, is transferred to the steam table in set 
pots and pans, which are made of various sizes and shapes 
best adapted to the food to be served. These insets 
are then placed in the steam table in the dining-room, 
where the food is kept at the proper temperature dur- 
ing mealtime. This equipment is necessary, for a 
good meal can very easily become unpalatable if it is 
allowed to cool so that it will have to be reheated. 
Trucks for the delivery of food to the dining-room and 
for the return of soiled dishes are found very useful in 
many of the larger cafeterias. 

The Serving Counter. — The serving counter should 
be about 50' long X29" wide, and should be arranged 
to contain the following sections, beginning at the 
traffic entry: tray and silver table, bread and butter 
table, salad table, steam table, dessert table, cold-drink 
table, and last the hot-drink table. 



THE CAFETERIA 



521 



To construct the best type of serving counter for all 
sections except the steam table and cold-drink table, a 
frame of wood or iron should be erected in the proper 
location, and covered on the top and front with 3 // X6 // 
white glazed wall tile, laid in cement on wire lath con- 
struction. The server's side of the counter should be 
left open and should be fitted underneath with a shelf 
for the use of the servers. 

The Steam Table. — The steam-table 
section should be about io' long and set 
with the top flush with the other sections, 
the front to be so constructed that the 
tile will show an unbroken line with the 
other sections throughout. The top 
should be made of No. 12 or No. 14 
galvanized iron, into which are cut the 
openings for the insets required by the 
service. The iron top should be covered 
with polished nickel silver with the edges 
well turned under to prevent it from 
buckling and twisting. 

The Hot-water Pan. — The hot-water 
pan should be about 8" deep and should 
extend the full length and width of the 
top. The pan should be made of cold 
rolled copper weighing about 2 pounds 
per square foot. Under the water pan is 
constructed a compartment for the warm- 
ing of dishes. This compartment and 
the water pan should be heated by either 
gas burners of proper size or by steam 
coils as the case may be. 

The Dish-warming Compartment. — 
The dish-warming compartment should 
be provided with tight-fitting doors in 
order to keep the heat in and exclude the 
dust. 

The Cold-drink Section. — The cold- 
drink section is constructed in the same 
manner as the other tiled top sections, 
except that the top should be countersunk about 8" 
deep, forming a pan about 3' o" long X 2 2" wide. This 
is^for the purpose of holding ice on to which the milk 
bottles, etc., are placed. There should be a 1" waste 
outlet and strainer set into bottom to drain off the 
water. 

The Urn. — Coffee is not as a rule served in school 
cafeterias except to the teachers, chocolate taking its 
place. It is therefore desirable to have an urn from 
which can be served coffee and also hot water for the 
mixing of chocolate. This urn should contain about 4 
gallons of coffee and 10 gallons of hot water. 

The urn should be placed on a combination urn stand 



and cup warmer. The top is constructed the same as 
the steam-table top, except that the edges are turned 
up 1" high all around to prevent dripping to floor. 
The warming compartment is constructed the same 
as the steam table and is heated in the same manner. 
A gas burner is brought through the top to heat the urn, 
care being taken to properly ferrule the opening in 
order to prevent leakage into the cups. 




I 




Fig. 447. — Arrangement or Dish Tables with Dish-washing Machines. 

The Tray Slide. — The whole serving counter must 
have a tray slide about 8" wide bracketed to the counter 
front about 8" above the top. This rail and bracket, 
if constructed of dark mahogany, makes a very pleasing 
combination with the white tile. 

The Checking Table. — The checking table, containing 
the checking machine or cash register, is located beyond 
the end of the serving counter and so placed that food can 
be handily checked as it is being taken from the service. 
This table should also be made of dark mahogany to 
match the rails and bracket of the serving counter. 

The Drinking- fountain. — ■ A drinking-fountain at 
which the pupils may obtain their drinking water should 



522 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

be placed at a convenient point in the dining-room not the general refrigerator, or a special ice box can be 
too far from the checker. It should be fitted with a provided. Each entire service must be identical in de- 
quick-opening and self-closing faucet of a type which sign and equipment, and the traffic aisles should each 
requires only one hand to operate. If desired the water .be fenced off from seating rooms. The fence should 
can be cooled by connecting the pipes to coils placed in correspond to the other wood construction. 



CHAPTER XXV 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 
By Mr. George E. Reed, M.E. 



I. Introduction. II. Standard of Purity. III. Ozonating. IV. Air Filters. V. Humidity. VI. Air Volumes. VII. Cost of 
Ventilation. VIII. Window Ventilation. IX. Open-air Rooms. X. Stoves, (i) Jacketed Stoves. XI. Furnaces, (i) Defects 
of Gravity Furnace Systems. (2) Gravity-indirect Steam. (3) Aspirating Coils. (4) Defects of Gravity-indirect. (5) Types of 
Modern Plants. (6) Furnace Plants in General. XII. Steam Systems, (1) One-pipe Gravity Steam. (2) Two-pipe Gravity Steam. 
(3) Vacuum Return Systems. XIII. Hot- water Systems. (1) Forced Hot Water. XIV. Apparatus and Design of Plant. 
XV. Boilers. (1) Boiler Supports and Settings. (2) Boiler Furnaces. (3) Smokeless Boilers. (4) Boiler Location. (5) Smokestack. 
(6) Oil Fuel. (7) Boiler Room, Piping. (8) Boiler Feed Pumps. (9) Vacuum Pumps. (10) Lubricators. (11) Exhaust Steam. 
Danger from Oil. (12) Domestic Hot- water Heaters. XVI. The Heating and Ventilating Plant. (1) Heating of Special Rooms. 
(2) The Indirect System. (3) Air Intake. (4) Intake Dampers. (5) Heating Coils. (6) Fans. (7) Motors. (8) Air Washers. 
(9) Fan and Coil Connections. (10) Plenum Chambers. (11) The Duct System. (12) Air Inlet Heads. (13) Grilles and Deflectors, 
Vent Openings. (14) Vent Flues. (15) Roof Ventilators. (16) Roof Dampers. (17) Exhaust Fans. (18) Toilet Ventilation. 
(19) Temperature Control. 



Introduction. — During the past few years mechanical 
ventilation, particularly as applied to schools and other 
public buildings, has been the object of rather severe 
condemnation. A return to the old system of window- 
ventilation is advocated by many, some of these ad- 
vocates being men of the medical profession ; some are 
persons with no actual knowledge of the matter, and 
there are those sincere faddists who cheerfully follow 
any leader in any direction. 

There is no doubt that cause for complaint exists. 
Not all plants are well designed, and in addition they 
may be antiquated and incompetently operated. Nat- 
urally but little should be expected from them. Many 
engineers charged with the design of plants are never 
brought into very intimate contact with the installa- 
tions after completion and acceptance by the owner, 
and it frequently may happen that operation" faults 
develop, which are either not rectified at all, or some 
makeshift is attempted without a real study of the 
trouble. Sometimes the owner or the architect, from 
mistaken ideas of economy, will not make the proper 
provision financially for an adequate equipment. An- 
other source of trouble, and a very great one, has been 
the lack of interest in the results to be accomplished, 
but even when the interest is present it is not an easy 
matter to investigate, follow up, and check the results, 
especially in the classroom containing numerous occu- 
pants in varying states of health, dress, and cleanliness. 
Investigations and research work are expensive and 
involve more time and money than is available to the 



average engineer. There is no doubt that our present 
systems of ventilation were evolved after the inadequacy 
of window methods had been demonstrated, and as the 
majority of the authorities apparently agree that the 
new systems are at least an improvement over the old, 
it would seem logical to continue as we are, improving 
the systems as better methods are made available. 

Taking the question of ventilation as 'a whole, al- 
though the great majority of authorities are quite 
agreed that artificial ventilation is beneficial, they all 
hold to widely varying theories as to the actual effect 
heating has upon the air itself, and the hygienic effect 
of dry or artificially humidified air, of different humid- 
ities at different temperatures, of dust, air currents, 
quantities, carbon dioxide, etc. All these points should 
be considered in relation to their effects, but since there 
is no agreement among authorities, any definite the- 
oretical working basis is manifestly impossible, and of 
necessity the plant in question must^be designed along 
its mechanical phases, and in the light of the designer's 
experience, past failures, and personal bias. 

The comment might be made here that nearly all 
of thelnost adverse criticism is centered about public 
and semi-public buildings. It is probably justified. 
Take two heating plants each equally good in design and 
material, one in a school, the other privately owned, and 
better results will be had from the latter. One does 
not have to go far for the reason. It is because im- 
properly operated private plants are simply not good 
business ; they do not pay. 



524 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Very large industrial organizations have investigated 
the subjects of heating and ventilating in all their 
branches and by " stop-watch " efficiency tests have 
decided what method is best adapted to each given 
condition. Having decided what system is required, 
it is then designed with a definite end in view, and it is 
afterward operated so as to achieve that result. 

The Ford Motor Company installed fan ventilation 
in their great Detroit plant simply and solely because 
it increased factory output and consequently enhanced 
earnings. It is not probable that periodically the ques- 
tion is raised as to whether the system is good or bad. 
The company knew before it was installed. 

Silk mills, match factories, and munition plants all 
have to be provided with some form of artificial hu- 
midity control and certain departments must be regu- 
lated with extreme nicety, and it is done. 

Schools are very remiss in this particular. Even if 
the plant is provided with all the necessary refinements, 
use may not be made of them. The man who designs 
the school heating system has certain things in mind at 
the time, but unfortunately his connection often termi- 
nates with the completion of the building, if not at the 
time the contract is awarded. The result is that the 
actual operating supervision is left to the business 
office, and all the aims and purposes of the designer are 
lost sight of. 

Air is a mechanical mixture containing approximately 
21 per cent of oxygen, the balance being composed 
principally of nitrogen with small amounts of several 
rare gases and metals. Air as exhaled contains about 16 
per cent of oxygen, the difference being represented by 
products of combustion within the body, C0 2 (car- 
bon dioxide) and water ; it also contains various debris 
from the tissues. 

Standard of Purity. — The presence of not more 
than six parts C0 2 in 10,000 parts of air has been for 
years, and still is, quite generally considered the proper 
standard of purity for air in most ventilating problems, 
the C0 2 having been held to be very injurious. The 
idea that C0 2 is in itself actually poisonous is now 
generally discarded in all well-informed quarters. The 
old standard of six parts in 10,000 is, however, almost 
universally retained, as it happens that an air supply 
sufficient to maintain this standard with the outside air 
at three parts, is about enough to carry off the bodily 
heat and dilute the various objectionable matters and 
odors. In other words, C0 2 is really taken as an index 
to the condition of the air in other respects. The pres- 
ence of carbon monoxide, however, is distinctly another 
matter. It is doubtless unnecessary to state that 
carbon dioxide is the resultant gas obtained by the 
complete combustion of carbon and oxygen, while 



carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete com- 
bustion of these two elements. Monoxide is com- 
bustible, having power to unite with more oxygen, then 
becoming, of course, carbon dioxide. The system in 
the course of its normal functions is constantly giving 
off dioxide as one of the products of the combustion 
of the fuels within the body, and even if inhaled it is 
gotten rid of with comparative ease. Carbon monoxide, 
however, is a deadly poison. It forms a large propor- 
tion of illuminating gas, and is the real cause of the so- 
called " motor disease " which has recently achieved 
some little press prominence. The action of carbon 
monoxide is very destructive, it breaks down the hemo- 
globin of the blood which constitutes the solid structure 
of the coloring matter of the red corpuscles and which 
is the oxygen carrier of the blood. 

Ozonating. — ■ Ozone has been advocated quite ex- 
tensively, and excellent results are claimed by some who 
maintain that practically all refuse organic matter is 
oxidized by it. The opponents insist that ozonating 
air merely covers one odor with another, and that if 
enough ozone be admitted actually to oxidize the ob- 
jectionable substances then the odor would not only be 
unbearable but there would be actual danger of the 
formation of nitrous compounds. Quite a variety of 
apparatus is manufactured and sold regularly by very 
reliable electrical concerns, but in spite of this it is 
difficult to find warrant for the general adoption of 
ozonating apparatus in connection with ventilating 
problems. 

Just what effect upon the health is produced by the 
various excreta contained in exhaled air is not yet es- 
tablished. It is held by some that they are positively 
harmful, while others claim that they have no effect 
whatever, barring, of course, direct infection by germs. 
On the whole, it may be safe to assert that if the relative 
humidity and temperature be maintained at the proper 
points, no danger has yet been proven to exist. The 
actual cause of " crowd poison " seems to be the high 
temperature and high relative humidity produced by 
massing people in small spaces or limited areas, either 
indoors or out. It should be remembered that the 
temperature of the body must be kept normal and all 
heat generated by the various processes must be dissi- 
pated, and when the temperature of the surrounding 
air is equal to or above that of the body all this heat 
must be dissipated by the evaporation of water from the 
surface of the skin. If the air becomes saturated to 
such a degree that evaporation does not take place with 
sufficient rapidity, then the temperature of the body 
will rise and general disorder will ensue. 

Air Filters. — Dust is objectionable in various ways, 
as a carrier of disease germs, as an irritant to the mem- 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 



5 2 5 



branes, and if carried into buildings it soils walls, furni- 
ture, etc. Dust can be readily removed by means of 
air washers if desired. Air niters, composed of a filter- 
ing material of coarse texture, either wet or dry, have 
been extensively used in the past, but are now quite 
generally abandoned on account of their inefficiency, 
liability to clog with dust, and the excessive resistance 
offered to the flow of air when fouled. 

Humidity. — The question of humidity is important 
but difficult to solve. The term " humidity " as used 
is taken to mean relative humidity expressed in per 
cent of saturation. The capacity of air to absorb and 
hold water varies with the temperature, and increases 
with the temperature. Assuming that the cold outside 
air be at or near saturation and that it be passed over 
the heating surfaces without having moisture added to 
it, the capacity for the absorption of water will be in- 
creased, depending upon the final temperature. Since 
the air after heating has this increased power for hold- 
ing water, it will take it from all available sources; 
from the mucous membranes, the linings of the nose, 
throat and nasal passages, and from the eyes. This 
naturally leads to inflamed eyes, sore throats, and in- 
creased liability to cold infections, due to the parched 



condition of the membranes. Another effect of low 
humidity is to increase the rate of evaporation from the 
skin, with the result that a temperature of 70 degrees, 
or even 72 degrees, may not feel as " comfortably " 
warm as a lower temperature and higher humidity. 
Although lower temperature could be maintained with 
comfort in humidified buildings, there would be no sav- 
ing in fuel, since what would be saved by operating on a 
lower temperature would be more than offset by the 
amount of heat required to evaporate the necessary 
amount of water to raise the humidity. If humidifying 
is undertaken, it should be with the anticipation that 
it will be an added expense and in no way a saving. 

It is not easy to effect a lower room temperature. 
Many persons are governed by the thermometer and 
not by their own sensations, and it might be predicted 
with a reasonable degree of accuracy that were all heated 
spaces lowered in temperature to say 64 degrees, many 
of the occupants would feel chilly as soon as they viewed 
the thermometer, regardless of the degree of relative 
humidity. Humidifying is not easy in practice. The 
best percentage has not been agreed upon, and there are 
some natural difficulties. In cold weather the windows 
are liable to become foggy, due to condensation, the 





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526 



SCHOOL 'ARCHITECTURE 



books and papers get wet and clammy, and blackboards 
slippery. While the average degree of humidity is much 
higher in Portland, Oregon, than in some of the eastern 
cities, there are periods when it becomes very low, 
readings sometimes showing as low as 20 per cent. 

Air Volume. — Air volume and the location of air 
inlets are of great importance, as well as the design of 
the inlet heads themselves. From 25 to 30 cubic feet 
of air per minute per occupant is about the amount 
required to maintain a standard of purity of 6 parts 
C0 2 in 10,000 parts of air, and this is the amount usu- 
ally required by city ordinance where such obtains. 
In the schools of Portland 40 cubic feet per pupil 
is the standard, for the reason that while a smaller 
amount will maintain the standard of purity, it will 
not keep the odors down. Air movement is of impor- 
tance, but hard to control. The warm air entering the 
room naturally rises, traverses the room more or less 
uniformly, cools, and drops, passing back through the 
breathing zone and out through a vent opening near 
the floor, located in the same wall as the heat inlet. 
Little trouble is experienced while the incoming air is 
warm, but as soon as the problem becomes one of cool- 
ing instead of heating, the entering air may fall more or 



less compactly within limited areas near the inlet, re- 
sulting in " drafts." The personal equation compli- 
cates the situation, because if the air movement is not 
perceptible some persons will complain that the room is 
stuffy, while others will complain of draft if they feel 
any movement of the air whatever. 

Cost of Ventilation. — Ventilation is expensive — it 
takes as much and sometimes more fuel to heat to room 
temperature the air required for ventilation than to 
supply the actual heat losses due to transmission through 
walls and glass. The cost of ventilation can be reduced 
by recirculating a part of the air, always adding some 
fresh from outside, say one-fourth to one-third of the 
total amount, and if the recirculated air is washed, very 
economical and satisfactory results can be obtained. 
Recirculating is very generally done in industrial plants, 
but it is out of the question in schools, for psychological 
reasons, if for no other. 

Window Ventilation. — Window ventilation for schools 
has been strongly urged, but for reasons which should 
be obvious it can hardly be expected to supplant the 
forced system. In the first place, it would be very 
difficult to get enough direct radiation in a classroom 
to take care of the heat losses and also heat the proper 




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HEATING AND VENTILATING 



527 



amount of air for ventilation. Few classrooms can, 
for hygienic reasons, have windows on more than one 
side of the room, and any circulation of air through the 
room is difficult, if not impossible. On windy days 
there will be too much air admitted and the seats near 
the open windows will be cold and those on the opposite 
side of the room too hot. The leeward side of the build- 
ing can get no ventilation whatever, due to the fact 
that it is in a zone of negative pressure, and if it does 
get any air it is certain to be vitiated air from 
some other more fortunately located portion of 
the building. Another difficulty is the preven- 
tion of the entrance of snow and rain through 
open windows, and in very inclement weather 
the windows are not opened at all and there 
can then be no ventilation except leakage. 
Much opposition among occupants of artificially 
ventilated rooms comes from the fact that they 
are not supposed to open windows. In a 
properly designed plant the opening of a few 
windows will do no particular harm except to 
waste fuel, and it generally does no good except 
to the imagination. No air can come in, as the 
room is under a plenum of pressure, and all air 
movement will be outward unless there is wind 
enough to overcome the fan pressure. 

No control of humidity and poor control of 
temperature will be achieved in a room heated 
entirely by direct radiation. It can also be 
demonstrated that a plant composed entirely 
of direct radiation is not cheaper to install, if 
the same results and capacities are actually pro- 
vided. The usual comparison is that of a direct 
system providing for the heat loss plus about 
three to four changes of air per hour, as against 
an indirect system with from six to seven 
changes, in other words, a little over one-half 
the capacity. 

Open-air Rooms. — Open-air rooms and the 
frank abandonment of any artificial means of 
heating or ventilating reached a spectacular 
climax of popularity a" couple of years ago, 
but much less is heard of it to-day. There is no 
doubt that open-air rooms have their place, which is 
to care for special cases. Open-air work should be 
done by specialists, and the children constantly kept 
under proper supervision as regards dress, diet, etc. 
It should be noted that open-air schoolrooms were 
originally applied to children sub-normal in a physical 
sense, and while excellent results were obtained, it 
does not follow that like benefits would be achieved by 
the indiscriminate application of the principle to all 
schools by the general teaching staff and without es- 



pecial medical supervision, which would, of course, 
be prohibitive in cost on so large a scale. It is impos- 
sible to find any record of the scientific application of 
open-air work to normal children, and it no more follows 
that much good would result than that the indiscriminate 
application of hospital methods to healthy persons would 
prove particularly beneficial. The various agitations 
of the past few years have not been barren of results. 
There is an awakening both among laymen and among 




Fig. 450. 

engineers, many of the latter having been in a some- 
what comatose state, and there is no doubt that many 
of the worst features of our systems will be eradicated 
or at least improved upon. 

Stoves. — The stove as a heating appliance is so simple 
and so familiar to almost everyone that it is perhaps 
superfluous to touch upon it in this chapter. Twenty- 
five or thirty years ago it was in very general use in pub- 
lic buildings and homes alike, and to-day it is by no 
means uncommon in the country. It is found in the 
portable schoolhouses of the city, usually in the modi- 



5^8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 451. 



fied form known as the jacketed stove. As a means of 
heating, the stove is a decided success, particularly in 
its immediate neighborhood, but inherent limitations 
confine its use to the very smallest and crudest of school 
structures. 

Jacketed Stoves. — The jacketed stove, in addition to 
its ability to heat, possesses some powers of ventilation. 
It consists of a simple heater inclosed in a metal casing, 
the space between the stove proper and the casing being 
connected to the outdoor air by means of a fresh air duct. 
The general arrangement is that of a small house-heating 
furnace with the top and ducts removed. The actual 
ventilating capacity of a jacketed heater is not great, but 
as the usual portable is not a very tight structure and is 
exposed on at least three sides, infiltration and leakage 
are sufficient to keep the quality of the air fairly good. 

The jacketed stove is a great improvement over the 
naked heater. The casing serves as a guard against 
accident by protecting the very hot surfaces, and less 
discomfort is experienced in seats near it. 



Furnaces. — The greatest single improvement over " 
the stove in its elementary state was the invention of 
the furnace. All the fires were removed from the several 
rooms and centrally located in the basement near the 
fuel supply and where the firing, cleaning, and removal 
of ashes could be accomplished more satisfactorily. 
The concentration of a number of small heating units 
into a single large one resulted in fuel economy, less 
labor and attention, better control, and all the opera- 
tions could be carried on without entering the classrooms. 
The fire hazard was also greatly reduced. The furnace 
in one form or another is more generally used than any 
other form of heating appliance. It is comparatively 
inexpensive to install and is especially suitable for 
small buildings since it requires the minimum of skill in 
operation. The furnace is a variation of the jacketed 
stove and is wholly desirable in its proper field. 

Defects of Gravity Furnace Systems. — Furnace sys- 
tems are usually of the " gravity " type. All air move- 
ment is produced by the tendency of the heated air to 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 



529 




Mr. Floyd A Xuramorc, Architect, Mr. George E. Reed, 1 

Fig. 452. — Boiler Room, Main Steam Piping, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. 



rise, and this tendency of necessity varies with the de- 
gree to which the air is heated, and with temperature of 
the outdoor air. The greater the difference between 
the temperature in the heating risers and the outside, 
the more will be the air delivery. Long horizontal 
ducts between the furnace and bases of risers affect the 
air flow unfavorably and the direction of wind is a factor 
as well. In a still day the system may act perfectly, — 
given a strong wind blowing directly into the fresh air 
intake, gusts of cool air are sometimes felt at the heat 
registers, having passed through the furnace so rapidly 
that they were not heated. On the other hand, if the 
wind is in such a direction that the intake is located on 
the lee side, the proper air movement may be reversed 
and the warm air pulled out of the building through the 
cold air connections. These characteristics are prob- 
ably familiar to all who have ever operated the average 
house-heating furnace. 

Since the ventilating effect is a direct result of tem- 
perature difference within and without the heating riser, 



it should be apparent that in mild and warm weather 
this effect will be slight or nil. In other words, a gravity 
furnace will heat and ventilate in cold weather, it will 
warm the building when it is mild outdoors, but in 
warm weather it is of no avail for ventilation. 

This shortcoming of the system being recognized, 
the next step was to provide some means of removing 
the air from the building, which would be independent 
of external conditions and of the main heating plant 
proper. 

The earliest attempt within the recollection of the 
writer was in a school which he attended in Massachu- 
setts some twenty-five or thirty years ago. This build- 
ing was provided with a large exterior brick stack, at the 
bottom of which a coal fire was constantly burning, 
which created a strong natural draft. The vent flues 
from the classrooms were connected to the stack, and the 
rooms could be more or less ventilated at all times. 
This system was extremely wasteful of fuel, and the 
fires in the vent stack consumed as much as, if not more 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 453. 



Mr. Floyd A. Naramore Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Meelmnient Knuin, 

-Boiler Room, Metering Heater, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. 



fuel than those on the grates of the furnaces which did 
the heating of the building. This method of air re- 
moval was the forerunner of the " aspirating coil," and 
neither should be recommended on account of high fuel 
consumption. 

As the iron and steel industry developed, boilers 
came into general use, steam and hot water became 
very strong competitors of the furnace, and finally elimi- 
nated it altogether except for small buildings or those 
where low first cost predominates. This was due in 
the main to two reasons. In the first place, a furnace 
must be absolutely tight in all its joints, else trouble 
will be experienced from smoke and dust finding their 
way into the air passages and thence to the building. 
It is next to impossible to construct a furnace so that 
it will neither burn through if of steel, nor crack and 
warp if of cast iron. In either case the result is a leaking 
furnace and soiled building wall surfaces. The second 
reason for steam supplanting furnace heat was that the 
rooms, if heated by steam, could be located within any 



reasonable distance from the heater, while with furnaces 
long horizontal ducts meant bad air distribution. 

Gravity-indirect Steam. (See Figure 448.) — The 
earlier steam ventilating plants usually consisted of 
some form of radiation, and differed from the furnace 
installation in that the hot-air furnace was dispensed 
with and radiators were placed in the ducts themselves. 
Sometimes each riser would have its own individual 
heater, and frequently a number of rooms would be 
heated by a bank of radiators, each group having its 
own fresh air intake. 

Aspirating Coils. — To remove the air from the 
rooms when the heating coils were not in operation 
the vent flues were each provided with a so-called " as- 
pirating coil." (See Figure 448.) This coil served to 
heat the air in the vent riser duct, causing it to rise and 
make its way to the atmosphere. This system, com- 
monly known as the " gravity-indirect," was exten- 
sively used before the application of the fan to heat- 
ing problems, and occasionally it is installed to-day. 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 



53i 



Defects of Gravity-indirect. — The " gravity-indirect " 
system is faulty in some very vital points. Being 
based wholly on the gravity principle, its operation is 
often hampered by adverse weather conditions, as in 
the case of the gravity furnace. The movement of air 
by means of heat applied directly to the air itself is very 
costly when compared with moving the same amount 
by mechanical methods such as engine or motor driven 
fans. A serious defect, though one of operation and 
avoidable, is that the air valves and traps on the " as- 
pirating " coils may become clogged and the coils air- 
bound. In this case, and it is not an infrequent one, 
the coils do not heat, and the room is consequently 
not ventilated. Fans had been in use many years for 
ventilating mines, and after going through various 
stages of development, their application to building 
problems became more and more general. 

Types of Modern Plants. — ■ Modern school heating 
systems in general are divided into three classes, fur- 
nace, steam, and hot water, each having its own pe- 
culiarities, advantages, and disadvantages. 

Furnace Plants in General. — As stated above, the fur- 
nace plant is cheaper to install, somewhat more simple 
in operation, and may be slightly more economical 
from a fuel standpoint. In addition to liability of 
dust, smoke, and gases from cracked or burned furnace 
sections and leaking joints, it is difficult to heat small 
service and special rooms without heating the entire 
building at the same time. This fact often offsets any 
fuel economy the plant may otherwise attain. In ex- 
treme weather the whole building may have to be heated 
in order to protect plumbing pipes and fixtures, all of 
which may be located in a few rooms. 

In case the building is too large for one furnace, two 
or more are assembled in battery. This presents diffi- 
culties in the way of even distribution of heat to different 
rooms. No trouble is experienced when the weather 
is cold, as there is then a fire in each furnace. In mild 
weather, however, all the fires will not be lighted, and 
those rooms will not be heated which receive their air 
supply from ducts leading out from near the cold 
furnaces, while the other rooms may be too warm. 

This is a condition which can be remedied in a degree 
by the installation of "baffles" and deflectors, but not 
satisfactorily. The janitor may forget the arrangement 
and location of these " baffles," and light furnaces which 
should not be lighted, or repairs may necessitate a dif- 
ferent arrangement from that obtaining before. 

Complaint is often made of the very dry and " burned " 
condition of the air from furnaces. There is probably 
just basis for it, but the reason has not yet been accu- 
rately determined. It is possible that the extremely 
hot surfaces of the furnace radiators burn the impuri- 



ties in the air or perhaps change in an unknown way 
some of the vital qualities of the air itself. The writer 
is of the opinion that low relative humidity is the cause 
of most of the discomfort. 

Steam Systems. — The steam system is somewhat 
more expensive to install, and requires a higher grade 
of operating ability. Special rooms, corridors, offices, 
and toilets can be warmed by direct radiation (see 
Figure 460), making these rooms, available outside of 
school hours and also permitting the heating of just 
those portions of the building necessary for the protec- 
tion of plumbing against freezing, all at a minimum fuel 
expenditure. 

One-pipe Gravity Steam. — ■ The simplest form of steam 
is the one-pipe gravity, which is usually operated at 
pressures up to twenty to twenty-five pounds per 
square inch. 

For all but the very largest buildings, where problems 
of drainage and pipe sizes would render one-pipe gravity 
undesirable, this system is probably the best-fitted for 
school work. It is comparatively cheap to install, and 
its simplicity of construction makes operation easy. 
It requires little by way of maintenance and is efficient. 

The " one-pipe gravity " system is so called because 
the steam and water of condensation are both con- 
veyed through a single pipe. For this reason the pip- 
ing system has to be large and high steam velocities 
avoided. In a horizontal pipe, for instance, the steam 
flows away from the boiler and the water toward it. 
If the pipe is too long or not sufficiently large or if the 
grade too low, the steam may impede or even stop the 
flow of water, resulting in " water hammer," broken 
fittings, and split pipe, with consequent damage to 
building and fixtures. 

Two-pipe Gravity Steam. — Two-pipe gravity systems 
are sometimes installed, in which case, separate returns 
are taken back to the boiler from the radiators. 

Vacuum Return Systems. — The vacuum system is a 
modification of the two-pipe gravity. This system gives 
good results if properly designed and constructed. 
There are several vacuum appliances on the market, 
differing only in detail, workmanship, and cost. They 
are practically alike in principle. 

An important advantage of the vacuum system is that 
the pitch of piping can be reduced to less than that of the 
gravity, and the returns can be made higher than the 
radiators if absolutely necessary ; but this is bad practice. 
There are no air valves on the radiators to spit water, 
and much better control is possible, since the radiator 
valve may be partly open in any position. 

Hot-water Systems. — Hot-water heating systems may 
be either forced or gravity. In the former the water is 
circulated by means of a pump, and in the latter circu- 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. Floyd A. NaramoTc, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed. 1 

Fig. 454. — Engine Room, Benson Polytechnic High School. Portland, Oregon. 



lation is produced by the tendency of the hot water to 
rise. The gravity hot-water system is admirably 
adapted for house heating, but it has limitations which 
prevent its being of much utility in schools. It will not 
be considered in this chapter. 

Forced Hot Water. — Forced hot water is a most 
satisfactory heating medium. It is agreeable, very 
flexible and easy to control. It is peculiarly adapted 
to the heating of scattered buildings. Where the 
ground is very uneven and the buildings are on different 
elevations, forced hot water conforms readily to the 
conditions, as the piping can follow the contour. 

This system is relatively expensive, although not 
excessively so. The cost of a forced hot-water installa- 
tion should not exceed that of first class vacuum work. 
Forced hot water requires more attention in design 
of plant and especially of distribution. The pipe 
sizes, in general, of a forced hot-water system will 
usually be about the same as for vacuum under the 
same conditions. The actual sizes depend entirely upon 



the limit of friction against which it is desired to pump 
the circulating water. 

Each and every main and branch should be figured 
as an hydraulic problem, and the nearest size of commer- 
cial pipe selected. The too common practice of estimat- 
ing pipe sizes by some rough and ready rule and then 
filling the system up with so-called " chokers " should 
be condemned. Like everything else in the scheme of 
things " chokers " have their place, but to install a 
four-inch heating main and then close it off with a 
" choker " having a two-inch orifice is anything but good 
engineering practice. Better and cheaper to install 
smaller pipe. 

Great care is necessary in the design of hot-water 
plants, to the end that no portion of the piping is exposed 
in such a way as to cause freezing. This can be pre- 
vented without difficulty. 

Apparatus and Design of Plant. — It might be stated 
here that there is nothing in the design of a heating 
plant, of whatever type, which goes further towards 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 




Fig. 455. 



Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Gee 

- Engine Room, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. 



id. I/.. Imnical Engine 



promoting satisfaction all around, as well as economy, 
than simplicity and the elimination of every needless 
complication. Too many engineers inject all sorts of 
unnecessary apparatus into the plants intrusted to them 
for design, with the result that the operating history 
of an installation is one of repairs, renewals, and general 
expense to the owner. In general, the simpler a plant 
is the more efficient it probably will be. 

The inclusion of the many patent devices calculated 
to remove all necessity for brains on the part of the 
attendant, or to perform miracles in fuel conservation, 
should be avoided. Many of these contrivances are 
sold with guarantees which are very broad and binding, 
but often valueless. Not infrequently the maker or 
agent will have gone out of business before the buyer 
discovers that the mechanical wonder does not function. 

The selection of the various apparatus of the school 
plant is a question of vital importance, and one that 
never should be left to anyone having an interest in the 
sale of the equipment, either directly or indirectly, or 



the results may be bad. Every item included in the 
heating installation should be of high grade and of 
standard make. 

Boilers. — The boiler best suited to general heating 
work is the horizontal-return tubular, with the excep- 
tions that below forty horse power, a firebox boiler is 
equally good and cheaper, and for sizes of one hundred 
and seventy-five horse power and over, water-tube 
boilers are to be preferred. The return tubular boiler 
should be designed for a working pressure of one hundred 
and fifty pounds per square inch, with double butt- 
strapped joints and charcoal iron tubes. These last 
two details in normal times cost but little more as com- 
pared with a standard boiler, and add greatly to the life 
and safety of the installation. 

Boiler Supports and Settings. (See Figure 449.) — All 
boilers above one hundred and twenty-five horse power 
should be provided with a gallows frame, half or full 
suspension. The practice of carrying all the weight of a 
heavy boiler on the boiler brickwork is a bad one. It 



534 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



inevitably results in cracked and broken settings with 
lowered efficiency due to air leakage, and is apt to be 
productive of bad strains in the boiler itself as a result 
of uneven support. 

The boiler, should be inclosed in brickwork composed 
of the very best of materials, installed by men skilled in 
this particular branch of masonry. Every attention 
should be paid to the proper air spaces, linings, and the 
protection of structural members and supports from heat. 

Boiler Furnaces. — As regards importance of function, 
the furnace ranks second to no other part of the plant, 
but it is too seldom that much thought is given it. It 
can be stated that, as a rule, the furnaces are not large 
enough as regards combustion space, and it is not 
often that they are designed with any particular fuel in 
view. 

The greatest fault is that the boilers are contracted 
for with standard settings, and they are altogether too 
low for the economical or smokeless use of fuel. The 
combustion chamber should be increased in height 
by one to three and one-half feet in addition to the 
standard height. How much they should be raised 
depends upon the nature of the fuel and the size and 
type of boiler. 

Smokeless Boilers. — Smokeless operation is prac- 
tically impossible unless the boilers are equipped with 
" smokeless " settings or down-draft grates. Both 
of these, for application to the ordinary-sized plant, 
have been worked out to a high degree of perfection, 
especially in Chicago. " Smokeless " settings and down- 
draft grates, however, achieve their purpose at some 
cost to boiler capacity. 

Boiler Location. — If possible the boilers should be 
located outside the building proper, for considerations 
of safety and to facilitate the handling of fuel, ashes, and 
supplies. 

Smokestack. — The breeching and stack are of prime 
importance. Both should be of ample size to carry off 
the waste gases, and the stack should be high enough to 
produce and maintain the draft pressure necessary 
for good combustion. No hard and fast rule can be 
laid down for the stack design which will be applicable 
for all conditions and fuels, since the requirements will 
vary widely. A low-draft pressure would be satisfactory 
for fuel oil, but higher pressures must be had if coal 
is used and particularly a strong coking coal. The 
stacks of school plants are too often not high enough for 
good results. This is frequently due to bad design as 
well as to limitations imposed by the architect. 

Oil Fuel. — Crude oil is an ideal fuel, from the stand- 
point of cleanliness and ease of operation. It is economi- 
cal if the equipment is properly selected and installed, 
but its use is limited to a comparatively few localities. 



Boiler Room. Piping. — Everything in and about the 
boiler room should be heavy, and securely installed. All 
boiler-feed and blow-off piping and all other boiler 
piping up to the first valve should be extra heavy. It 
is good practice to make all valves and fittings in the 
boiler room extra heavy, since it is here that the greatest 
strains occur. Ample provision for expansion and 
contraction is a requisite throughout the entire system, 
but it is especially so in the boiler room. 

Boiler Feed Pumps. — Boiler feed pumps of the out- 
side packed plunger type are the most desirable, since 
any leakage is instantly visible, which is not the case 
with piston-packed pumps ; however, piston-packed 
pumps are satisfactory for small plants. Boiler feed 
pumps should be installed in duplicate, each pump large 
enough to handle the entire plant under maximum load. 
This will insure low piston speeds, few packing troubles, 
and long life. 

Vacuum Pumps. — Vacuum pumps having a rated 
capacity of one- third to one-half in excess of maximum 
figured requirements is good practice and the pumps 
should be equipped with suction strainers to prevent 
the entry of dirt and scale with consequent injury to 
valves and cylinders. 

Lubricators. — Forced-feed lubricators are a necessity 
in all pump installations. The action of boiler feeders 
and vacuum pumps is intermittent and the forced-feed 
lubricator supplies oil only when the pump operates, 
consequently reducing the cost of lubrication. The 
less oil is fed into the system, the less has to be eliminated. 
Sight feed lubricators should be installed, however, 
in addition to the mechanical ones, as a precaution 
against breakdown. 

Exhaust Steam. Danger from Oil. — The exhaust 
from the steam-actuated auxiliaries may be utilized in 
the heating system, provided proper means are adapted 
to remove all lubricants. Oil in boilers is a very serious 
matter, burned and bulged plates can very easily be 
the result, and it requires but little oil to do a great deal 
of damage. 

Domestic Hot-water Heaters. — • Provision for heating 
water must be made, and the quantity to be heated will 
vary with the school, but for the average elementary 
school with eight hundred pupils, a two-hundred gallon 
tank containing from twelve to fifteen feet of two-inch 
brass pipe is ample. Schools having pools or large shower 
rooms, high schools and trade schools, present problems 
of their own. 

In schools having steam-actuated auxiliaries, it is 
not a bad idea to arrange the piping so that the exhaust 
can be utilized in the heaters exclusively, and the con- 
densation wasted to the blow-off tank or the sewer. 
This means some loss of heat with the condensation, but 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 




Fig. 456. — F 



it is probably offset by the increased efficiency of the 
clean boilers. 

The Heating and Ventilating Plant. — The portion 
of the system most intimately related to the occupants 
of the building as regards health and comfort is the 
heating and ventilating plant proper. Generally speak- 
ing, there are two distinct methods ; one consists of the 
supplying of all wall and glass losses by means of direct 
radiation in conjunction with a fan system arranged 
to ventilate only, by supplying air at or a little below 
room temperature. (See Figure 448.) The other system 
eliminates the radiators and delivers air to the rooms at 
a temperature high enough to make up for the heat loss 
through walls and windows. (See Figure 448.) 

The first system is more expensive to install, but is 
better adapted to very low temperatures and is other- 
wise desirable. Any room can be used after school 
hours, for community purposes, for instance, without 
operating the fans. The second system costs less to 
install, is more simple of operation, and is particularly 



A. Naramore, Architect, 

, Portland, Oregon. 



/, Mechanical Engineer. 



adapted to those localities not liable to extremes of cold 
weather. 

Heating of Special Rooms. — In either case corridors, 
toilets, rest, and emergency rooms, principal's office, and 
other special service rooms, should be fitted with direct 
radiation hung on concealed brackets, and where the 
radiator is not located under a window, provided with a 
metal shield placed behind it to protect the walls from 
discoloration. 

The Indirect System. — The indirect, or fan system, 
comprises tempering and reheating coils, fans, air washer, 
galvanized iron ducts, inlets with grilles or deflectors and 
an appropriate system of vent flues for the removal of 
the vitiated air from the building. 

Air Intake. — The air should be brought into the 
building through a fresh-air intake, with its inlet not 
lower than the second story and at a velocity not higher 
than eight hundred feet per minute. The intake 
opening should be provided with fixed louvers for the 
exclusion of rain and snow, and a wire screen. The net 



536 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 457.- 



Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect, Mr. Geo. E. Reed, Mechanical Engineer. 

-Fan Room, Tempering Coils, Plumbing Manifold, Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Oregon. 



area through these louvers should never be less than the 
area of the intake itself. This is an important detail, 
and one that is often overlooked in the drafting room. 

Intake Dampers. — Louver dampers in the intake are 
a necessity, and they may be arranged for manual con- 
trol or by means of an air switch in connection with the 
thermostat air compressor; provision should also be made 
for recirculating air when heating up the building, as 
this means economy. 

Heating Coils. — ■ The heating coils may be either of 
pipe or of cast iron. Under normal conditions they 
cost practically the same, and foot for foot there is no 
difference in efficiency, but the cast-iron heaters present 
certain inherent advantages. They can be installed 
in either a horizontal or a vertical position and can be 
assembled in various desired combinations. The most 
widely used cast-iron heater is the American Radiator 
Company's " Vento." It is conservatively rated by 
the manufacturers and can be obtained in sizes to suit 
any condition. 



Fans. — There are many makes of fans in vogue, but 
they may all be roughly divided into three groups, steel 
plate or " paddle-wheel," multiblade, and some form 
of disc or propeller. The disc or propeller fan is not 
broadly adapted to heating work, although in small 
plants and where the resistance is low it answers the 
purpose. The steel plate fan has been practically elimi- 
nated from the heating field by the multiblade, not 
because it is less efficient necessarily, but because the 
latter is smaller for a given amount of air and possesses 
totally different characteristics, which better fit it for 
use in heating and ventilating. 

Substantially all the multiblade fans are developments 
of the Davison fan; they differ only as to details of 
workmanship and material. There is one departure, 
however, in the Buffalo Concidal, which has been de- 
veloped along lines entirely distinct from any other. 
It is very conservatively rated, possesses a very uniform 
delivery of air over the entire outlet, and is quiet in 
operation. No fan, however, can be quiet if the system 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 



537 




Mr. Floyd A. Naramore 

Fig. 458. — Boiler Room, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. 



is improperly designed. The velocity through the 
outlet of the fan should not exceed from twelve hundred 
to fifteen hundred feet per minute, and the total pressure 
of the fans should not be more than one and one-eighth 
inch water pressure. 

Motors. — Motors should be selected with relatively 
low relative speeds to insure quiet running and long life. 
Motor pulleys should be one size larger in diameter than 
the standard pulleys regularly fitted to prevent belt 
slipping; this is particularly applicable to alternating- 
current motors. 

Air Washers. — Air washers are a necessity in all 
localities where the air is smoky or dusty, such as in 
the congested districts of cities. Country schools, or 
those located in outlying city districts, need them less, 
as a rule. An air washer reduced to its prime essentials 
consists of a tank for holding the water, a series of 
nozzles for producing a spray, a set of eliminating 
plates for the removal of entrained water, and a circulat- 
ing pump. When in operation, the pump draws water 



from the tank, forces it through the nozzles, where it is 
broken up into a very fine mist-like spray through which 
the air is drawn in the process of washing, thus removing 
practically all solid matter. After leaving the nozzles 
the water falls to the tank or is caught on the eliminating 
plates and is recirculated. 

The washer maybe fitted with a humidifying apparatus 
consisting of some means of heating the washing water, 
thus raising the humidity of the air, which is under 
control of a humidistat. This heating may be accom- 
plished directly by means of a steam jet, or the water 
may be heated in a closed heater. 

For good results the velocity of the air through the 
washer should not exceed four hundred and fifty feet 
per minute, and the washer should always be placed on 
the suction side of the fan and never on the fan outlet, 
as there is then liability of producing " blow holes " 
through the mist and considerable quantity of the air 
will go through unwashed. 

Fan and Coil Connections. — Good judgment and 



53« 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. Floyd A. Naramor, . Architect, Mr Cki /■:. It, id, Mechanical Engineer. 

Fig. 459. — Boiler Room, Circulating Pumps for Forced Hot- water Heating System, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. 



experience are necessary in the selection of fans, coils, 
washers, etc., also determining their relation to each 
other, and to the duct system. The most prevalent 
fault is short connections between the several compo- 
nent parts. All connections should be long enough to 
permit of easy air flow, especially the connection between 
the fan and the reheating coils. If this connection is too 
short there will be an area of high pressure in the plenum 
chambers directly in front of the fan outlet, which will 
tend to force heated air back through the coils at the ends 
into the tempered air chamber and upset the temper- 
ature control. This is the usual cause of " back lash." 

Plenum Chambers. — ■ The plenum chambers should 
be as nearly square as possible, and the velocity across its 
cross section should not exceed three hundred feet per 
minute. 

The Duel System. — No part of the plant requires 
more skill in design than the duct system. It may be 
of galvanized iron, tile, or cement, or in part of all three. 
Such parts as may be of tile or cement should be ample 



in cross-section, and all interior surfaces of concrete 
ducts should be plastered, sharp turns should be avoided, 
and except where proper provision has been made for 
them, heating and plumbing pipes and electric conduits 
should be vigorously excluded from all ducts. The 
duct system deserves, but does not always get, close 
supervision during construction. It is not an uncommon 
occurrence that a good layout is destroyed by poor instal- 
lation. High velocities in the duct systems should be 
avoided. One thousand feet in horizontals and four 
hundred feet in vertical risers is excellent, but not always 
possible. Each branch or duct should be provided with 
a damper to balance and control properly the flow of air. 
Air Inlet Heads. — Air inlet heads should be located 
at such height that their tops will be about six inches 
below the ceiling, and it is advantageous if they be pro- 
vided with air splits and deflectors to deliver the air 
uniformly into the room. (See Figure 450.) It not infre- 
quently happens that full duct velocity will be found 
over an area of from one-half or less of the inlet, and zero 



HEATING AND VENTILATING 




Fig. 460. — Fan Installation during Constrw 
or negative velocity over the remainder. A velocity 
of three hundred feet per minute should not be exceeded 
through the air inlets. 

Grilles and Deflectors. Vent Openings. — Except where 
reasons of design render grilles desirable, their use has 
been abandoned by the Portland public schools, either 
for supply or vent openings. In this place it is now 
customary to install adjustable exterior deflector blades 
on the air inlets, as they permit of a much better 
distribution of the incoming air. The vent openings 
are brought to the floor line and are neatly finished by 
running the wall and base around the back of the vent 
and laying the regular flooring on the bottom. The 
usual grille presents an unnecessary amount of friction 
to the egress of the air and it is difficult to prevent the 
accumulation of dirt in the space behind it, while the 
open vent is easily kept clean. The open vent is liable 
to this objection, however, that unless rules are made 
and enforced, it is liable to become a favorite storage 
space for the waste-paper basket, lunch boxes, books, etc. 



Vent Flues. — Gravity vent flues should never be 
smaller than the corresponding supply risers of the 
rooms to which they are connected, and it is better, but 
not always possible, to construct them one-fourth to one- 
third larger in area. They should be run without bends 
or offsets direct to the roof ventilators. The practice 
of terminating room vents in the attic spaces and then 
providing one or more large ventilators for the attic has 
nothing to commend it. Nine times out of ten it will 
be found that if a corridor door or window is opened 
in a room, the air will promptly back down through the 
vent into the room concerned. 

Roof Ventilators. — In the Portland schools the vents 
are run separately through the roof, with the provision, 
however, that where two or more vents are located side 
by side, they may be terminated in a single ventilator, 
but in all cases the ducts themselves are kept separate 
all the way up. Vents from toilets are never combined 
with any other vents, but are provided with their own 
independent roof ventilators. 



54© 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




l 



Fig. 461. 

Roof Dampers. — Every roof ventilator is provided 
with a damper having compressed air control from the 
engine room, except those from toilets which are pro- 
vided with neither dampers nor controls. Dampers in 
the roof ventilators are a necessity, and when used in 
conjunction with the louver dampers in the fresh air 
intake, the combination permits of keeping the building 
much warmer overnight and facilitates quick warming in 
the morning. If air is recirculated while heating up 
these dampers for closing, the room vents are a necessity. 

Exhaust Fans. — Exhaust fans are limited in their 
application to the school building. They should be 
installed, however, in connection with toilet rooms, 
swimming-tank and locker rooms, and sometimes the 
auditorium. The extension of the exhaust system de- 
pends upon the space for vents in the departments and 
facility for running the vent flues to the roof. 

Toilet Ventilation. — The best way to ventilate the 
main toilet rooms is through the plumbing fixtures by 
means of the local vent, sometimes called the " Boston " 



vent. In this system an air chamber is provided behind 
each bank of toilets and urinals, from which the air is 
continually exhausted by a fan. A connection is made 
between each fixture and the vent space, and the fixtures 
are provided with air openings through which the air 
passes. With this type of installation there need be no 
odor whatever in any toilet room. It might be said in 
passing that any attempt to accomplish this by con- 
necting the vent chamber with the chimney space is 
doomed to certain failure, for it will not work. 

Temperature Control. — Automatic temperature regu- 
lation is a necessity in the modern school. It promotes 
the health and comfort of the occupants and conserves 
fuel. Any form of hand control is a failure. If it is 
attempted it can lead to but two results. Either the 
person to whom the hand operation of such control is 
intrusted will manipulate it for his or her own personal 
comfort, or else it will be neglected in the press of other 
duties. In either case the results are bound to be un- 
satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



PLUMBING 

By George E. Reed, M.E., Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

I. Introduction. II. Mains. III. Excavation. IV. Main Soil Pipe. V. Cesspools. VI. Septic Tanks. VII. Roof Drains. 
VIII. Temporary Toilet Facilities. IX. Materials. X. Underground Pipes. XI. Constant Inspection. XII. Union Connections. 
XIII. Valves. XIV. Wall and Floor Plates. XV. Floor Drains. XVI. Testing. XVII. Water Supply. XVIII. Water Distribu- 
tion. XIX. Hot-water Circulation. XX. Fire Protection. XXI. Standpipes and Fire Hose. XXII. Pipe Covering. XXIII. Plumb- 
ing Fixtures. 



Introduction. — The plumbing system of a modern 
building is far from being the simple affair it was twenty 
years ago, although there is nothing involved in it that 
could not be readily understood by anyone of ordinary 
intelligence. It is probably true that less care is taken 
in the design of a plumbing installation than is the case 
with almost any other branch of the mechanical equip- 
ment. In the olden days of lead plumbing and wiped 
joints, the plumbers' trade, as it is to-day to a less extent, 
was a closely regulated one, and the journeyman did 
not divulge much information regarding his art to the 
layman. City ordinances and regulations generally 
have never permitted anyone not duly licensed to do 
any plumbing work extending beyond very minor 
repairs, and every plumbing installation is subject to 
strict inspection by the city authority. This is per- 
fectly right and proper, but it has resulted in making 
engineers and architects careless in regard to plumbing 
plans and plumbing specifications. Very often, even 
for large buildings, no plans for the work are prepared, 
and the specifications are the flimsiest sort of a pretext. 
Rambling through page after page of semi-technical 
text, describing weight and quality of material, how to 
make and calk joints in cast-iron pipe, how to join 
wrought to cast-iron pipe, etc., the specifications will 
set forth two things : that the entire system must 
comply with city ordinances, and it will include with 
some certainty a list of plumbing fixtures. 

There are many things that can make or mar a plumb- 
ing installation, and the specifications and plans should 
be so contrived that the former will be included, and the 
latter excluded. It is very easy for a plumbing con- 
tractor to comply with both the city ordinance and the 
contract documents, and yet skimp the work in many 
ways, that is, unless it has been definitely planned before- 
hand and what was wanted explicitly shown or stated. 



Usually the plumbing codes do not embrace anything 
outside the sanitary system proper, and the entire water 
distribution, which is vital to its satisfactory operation, 
is left to the contractor. 

The defects which will make themselves known after 
work is done under these conditions and a strong com- 
petitive system are too many to be enumerated here ; 
their name is legion. The chief one is inadequate water 
supply to fixtures; sometimes twenty to twenty-five 
flushometer valves will be supplied through a i\" pipe 
run a long distance from the main. 

It is not the intention of this chapter to enter into 
a history of the development of plumbing as a science 
nor to include all the data necessary for the design of 
plumbing installations in general, but rather to emphasize 
those details which are most frequently overlooked or 
which may not be regulated by law. 

Mains. — • The first requisite in the intelligent plan- 
ning of a plumbing layout is an accurate survey of 
the building site. This should show all the adjacent 
sewers, water and gas mains, their respective sizes, 
distances from curb and lot lines, manholes, elevations 
referred to official datum, and if possible, the location 
of all stubs and branches. Where there are buildings 
on the site having connections to sewer, water, or gas, and 
which will be moved or demolished to make room for 
the new structure, provision should be made for discon- 
nection and removal of all old service pipes and for 
sealing of openings in street mains. This is not unim- 
portant, particularly with hard surface streets. It may 
save an extra expense caused by having to do it after 
the building is well under way or completed and all 
other street work done. 

Excavation. — ■ Excavation for the underground system 
is usually done by the plumbing contractor, and care 
should be exercised that no trench or other excavation 



542 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



is made close enough to footings or bearing walls to 
affect them. 

Main Soil Pipe. — The main soil pipe and branches 
should be run with standard pitch, which is usually 
one-quarter inch per foot. The fall can be reduced to 
one-eighth or one-tenth inch per foot, provided that 
permission can be obtained from the proper authorities. 
This expedient, however, should never be resorted to 
unless absolutely necessary on account of high sewer 
elevations. It should never be done merely for the 
sake of connecting to a conveniently located sewer, and 
at its highest part or start, the top of the drain pipe 
should not be less than one foot below the bottom of the 
floor slab. 

The Portland Public Schools invariably connect to 
the sewer wherever there is any possibility of so doing, 
even though it entails considerable cost. In one school 
a distance of about eight blocks was traversed before 
estabhshing sewer connection. Neither a cesspool 
nor septic tank is installed except as a last resort. If 
the sewer is so far away or its elevation such that 
connection to it is impossible, then one or the other may 
have to be constructed. 

Cesspools. — If there is a good depth of gravel, and 
if the surface water stands well below the grade, a cesspool 



is the better, otherwise a septic tank with loose joints 
subsoil drain. Cesspools are five feet in diameter and 
range anywhere from twenty-five to fifty feet in depth. 
They are lined with brick laid without mortar, the tops 
being arched over. 

Septic Tanks. — Septic tanks are used where neither 
sewers nor cesspools are practicable. A septic tank 
based on seventy gallons per day per person and an 
actual capacity of one cubic foot for every twenty 
gallons is usually sufficient. The depth of liquid and 
width of tank may be made roughly equal, and the 
length twice the width. The depth of liquid should not 
be less than five feet. 

Roof Drains. — Roof drains should never be connected 
into the septic tank, but rather to dry wells if possible. 
In fact, the rain-water system and the house drainage 
system should always be kept entirely independent 
one from the other. Even where there are sewer facili- 
ties, all roof drains, except for small buildings, should 
go to the sewer direct. If the downspouts connect 
to the house drainage system, there is liability of backing 
up at the floor drains during a heavy downpour, and in 
case the building connects to a septic tank the sudden 
high rate of flow may entirely displace the contents of 
the tank, thus interfering with septic action. If the 



-SE 




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Ti-^n *T £>-B- 



e-B ync T-fi. n re 



MECHANICAL E,WGlNttL 
POUTLAND OL£,GON- 



PLUMBING 




\ 




Fig. 463. — Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



outflow from the septic tank be discharged on the surface, 
the contents thus ejected may cause trouble. A case in 
point was one where, pending sewer construction, the 
writer installed a septic tank for a group of buildings 
comprising a large institution. The roof and drainage 
area were considerable, and the tank discharged on the 
surface. The roof drains were connected, without per- 
mission, into the house system, and during a very heavy 
rain, the septic tank was scoured out and the contents 
distributed upon adjacent property with the result 
that claim was made for damage. Roof water from 
large buildings should not be conveyed to the cesspool, 
on account of liability of overflowing the cesspool and 
backing up through the basement floor drains. 

Temporary Toilet Facilities. — Wherever possible it is 
desirable to have the plumbing contractors make sewer 
and water connections and install temporary toilet 
facilities for the workmen employed on the building. 
There is generally little excuse for the latrine so 
commonly employed on construction work. 

Materials. — All the material entering into the 
school plumbing installation should be of high grade, 



and as it is liable to be subjected to hard usage, every- 
thing should be heavy and substantial. Many cities 
require by code that all the underground drainage 
system beneath the building be of extra heavy cast- 
iron pipe. From five feet beyond the building line to 
the sewer, salt-glazed vitrified terra cotta pipe with 
cemented joints may be employed. The " Durham " 
system of piping with galvanized wrought-iron pipe and 
recessed drainage fittings is best adapted to all portions 
of the sanitary system. Cast iron is sometimes employed 
throughout on account of lower cost, but it is more 
bulky, and the saving usually is not worth the sacrifice 
in space and appearance. 

Naturally galvanized-iron pipe should be used through- 
out for all water piping, and malleable iron, beaded, 
and galvanized fittings should be employed. Gas and 
vacuum sweeper piping require black pipe, uncoated 
drainage fittings for the vacuum, and malleable iron 
for gas. 

Underground Pipes. — Under no circumstances should 
wrought pipe, either black or galvanized, be laid under- 
ground, particularly within the confines of the building. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





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Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

Fig. 464. — Boys' Toilet Room, Showing Urinals, Clawson School, Oakland, California. 



It will invariably result in early failure of the pipe so 
installed, and then will arise the necessity of digging 
up the basement floor to locate and repair leaks. If 
natural causes do not combine to destroy the pipes, then 
electrolysis, present in every city, will do it. 

The entire water distribution system, both hot and 
cold, fire protection piping, and gas should be run above 
ground, exposed if necessary. Something may have 
to be sacrificed in appearance, but it will pay in the end. 
In case, however, that a water supply main be four inches 
or more in diameter it may then be of cast iron and laid 
underground. An added advantage of having the 
piping installed as above indicated is that the runs of 
all pipes are readily followed, and in case of alterations, 
connection can be made at any time. 

Constant Inspection. — Constant inspection should 
be maintained to prevent haphazard installation of 
pipes. Plumbers in the usual pursuit of their trade 
employ a great many forty-five and sixty degree fittings, 
and unless prevented, these may be too freely installed, to 



the detriment of an otherwise neat installation. These, 
angle fittings are a logical and necessary part of the 
drainage system, but their use in other parts of the plant 
can easily be abused. For instance, if the work does not 
" line up " properly at some point it can be made to do 
so by " two forty-fives " and the result is a " skewed " 
run of pipe. Pipe runs should be run parallel to walls 
or ceilings unless there are good reasons to do otherwise. 

Union Connections. — The use of " long screws " 
with running threads and lock nuts is not permitted 
in the Portland schools. They do not make a satisfac- 
tory nor permanently strong joint. Except on large 
sizes of pipe, and at apparatus which might require 
disconnection at any time, right and left couplings 
are insisted upon. On apparatus, railroad unions are 
installed, or flanged unions in the case of large piping. 
No slip joints are permitted on supplies to fixtures, but 
ground seat unions are used instead. 

Valves. — Valves of good material and manufacture 
should be insisted upon and provision should be made 



PLUMBING 



545 



to the end that every valve installed have its stem packed 
with some high grade lubricated stem packing. Too 
many installations are left with the valves packed with 
lamp wick. This swells when wet, making it next to 
impossible to operate the valves, especially large ones. 
Each valve should be plainly marked with a brass tag 
secured to its wheel with a brass chain, and a chart should 
be prepared listing all such valves, together with the 
location and duty of each. One chart may be provided 
at the building and one should be filed at headquarters. 
If any valve is so located as to be inside any wall or in 
the floor, a metal box with frame and cover, all prefer- 
ably of brass, should be provided with it. 

Wall and Floor Plates. — Where piping passes through 
finished walls, floors, or ceilings, nickel-plated plates 
should be installed, and these plates should in no case be 
of light spun material, but of cast metal secured in place 
with set screws. 

Floor Drains. — The floor drains in all cases should 
be heavy, with galvanized iron body and brass ring and 
cover ; the cover not less than one-eighth inch in thick- 
ness, and removable. Hinged covers not secured by 
screws should be avoided. They are apt to become 
knocked open, and injury result from some one's being 
tripped up. Considerable annoyance is frequently 
experienced in setting and maintaining floor drains in 
their proper positions during building operations. A 
very good method is to rough in for the drain and plug 
the outlet, then set a sheet metal form around it against 
which the concrete floor is stopped. After the floor is 
finished the floor drain fixture can be set and leveled, 
and the hole filled with concrete. This is also applicable 
to cleanouts. 

Testing. — Great care should be exercised to make 
sure that the drainage system is tight in all its parts, 
and no piping should be covered up until it has been 
tested. The methods to be employed in testing are 
usually prescribed by law in cities of any size. One as 
good as any is to plug all openings and fill the system 
with water to the top level of the vents, and watch for 
any settlement. If the water holds its level for thirty 
minutes the system may be declared tight, otherwise 
not. Smoke or air tests may be made where very low 
temperatures might cause freezing. 

Water Supply. — It goes without saying that an ade- 
quate water supply should be provided for all buildings. 
The water pressure in the main to which the service is 
to be connected should be ascertained ; also whether the 
pressure is subject to fluctuations, within what ranges, etc. 

Having the water pressure in view, the service and 
distribution system should be designed accordingly. 
Generally speaking, a high school will require a smaller 
service line than an elementary school. A grade school 



with morning and afternoon recess, at which times 
several hundred pupils may all be released at once, will 
produce a very high peak in water consumption. With 
seat-operating flushometers this is particularly so, and 
with some types of valve the pressure at the fixtures 
may be reduced by excessive demand so that no flush- 
ing effect is accomplished, after the procession is well 
under way. With manually operated valves or with 
tanks the result will be the same. In the case of tanks 
there would not be time for them to fill up enough to 
flush the bowl out after use. The writer has timed toilet 
use during recess in grade schools and has observed a 
flushing rate as high as once every eleven seconds per 
bowl, and that in schools by no means inadequately 
equipped with toilet facilities. 

A common fault in the water distribution of many 
schools is badly regulated pressure and lack of means 
to shut off or control fixtures or groups of them. The 
main water service of course should have a valve at the 
curb or elsewhere outside the building ; this feature is 
included in the regulations of most serving companies. 
The water supply line should be brought to some readily 
accessible location, the boiler room by preference, and 
it should there terminate in a manifold having separate 
valved branches to supply the various building require- 
ments. Every branch leading from the manifold 
should have a valve and drain; the manifold should 
be drained as well as the supply pipe leading to it. It is 
excellent practice to collect all these drains together and 
arrange the piping so that the discharge will be visible. 
This will guard against accidentally leaving any drain 
valve open and wasting of water, — ■ a good point if the 
water is metered. 

Water Distribution. — It is generally sufficient if 
branches be taken from the manifold as follows, one 
each : boys' toilet, girls' toilet, boiler room, and heating 
plant, sill cocks, and general building water supply ; 
the last supplying fountains, isolated fixtures through- 
out the building, such as offices, emergency rooms, 
teachers' rest room, etc. The hot water may also be 
included. This branch should be provided with a pres- 
sure regulating valve. If this is done less trouble will 
be experienced with fixtures, and the pressure at the 
fountains will be constant, or practically so, at all times. 
If no provision is made for maintaining a uniform pres- 
sure at drinking fountains, constant changes in adjustment 
will be necessary, and even then the results will be far from 
satisfactory. If regulation is made in the cups so as to 
prevent spouting during periods of high pressure, the flow 
will be so small during recess, when the toilets are in 
full blast, that the drinkers will be obliged to touch the 
cups with their mouths in order to drink, and direct 
contagion is possible. 



1^_Z ~ 




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.1 r 







PLUMBING 




Fig. 466. — Toilet Rooms, Franklin High School, Portland, Oregon. 



Mr. Floyd A. Naramore, Architect. 



Supply pipes to fixtures and banks of fixtures should be 
proportioned to supply them adequately without undue 
pressure drop, and the distribution system ought to have 
the same care in design as would be exercised in laying 
out any other kind of piping installation. 

For reasons of strength, and on account of smaller 
sizes fouling easily, three-quarters inch is the least 
allowable diameter for branches. Every branch should 
be valved, and a valve should be provided for each 
group of fixtures exceeding two in number. This will 
be appreciated in case of accident, or if renewals and 
repairs are made to the system. In addition to the 
above, no hot-water pipe should be less than ten inches 
from cold-water piping. Low pockets should not be 
permitted unless a drain is installed, and every part 
of the system should be so arranged that it can be 
readily drained clear of water. 

Hot- water Circulation. — In most buildings a cir- 
culating system is a necessity to insure hot water at 
the fixtures promptly without waste of water. Usually 
these circulating systems consist of a series of circulating 



returns brought back to the hot-water tank. There 
are two things to avoid in installing a circulating hot- 
water system, — one is a long run of horizontal pipe be- 
tween the tank and riser, the other is a check valve in 
the return at the tank; poor or no circulation will be 
the result from either. The main hot-water riser should 
be carried up in a location as near the tank as possible, 
so that the flow will be vigorous. 

Fire Protection. — The details of the fire protection 
system are regulated by law in many cities ; but whether 
this be the case or not, the installation should be in- 
stalled in such a way as to meet with the approval of the 
fire department. 

Fire protection in most schools is limited to stand- 
pipes and fire hose, although some are equipped through- 
out with automatic sprinklers. The installation of 
sprinkler systems entails a very heavy expense, and its 
advisability is open to question in the majority of in- 
stances. Among the Portland schools there are but two 
or three fully equipped. With proper supervision of 
plant the hazard from internal fire should be very small. 



548 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




^ 




• 467-- 



- Clawson Elementa 



Statistics show that practically all school fires start in 
or about the heating plant, and at early hours in the 
morning during cold weather. This may be due to 
defective apparatus, or from the janitor's coming on 
duty late and attempting to heat up in too short a time. 
Fuel, especially wood, may be carelessly stored too near 
smoke pipes, and if soft coal, lignite for instance, is the 
fuel, the fire may result from spontaneous combustion. 
/Most of the older schools in Portland were frame 
structures with hot-air furnaces and fuel storage in the 
basements, in some cases as much as seventy-five to one 
hundred cords of wood being stored in one building. 
Having been built before the days of competent fire 
regulations, many of these plants were anything but 
good fire risks. In 1916, however, adequate financial 
provision was made, and all furnace and fuel rooms were 
thoroughly fireproofed. The ceilings were protected 
by metal lath and plaster, all unnecessary openings 
were closed, wood partitions removed and replaced by 
tile. The doors opening into the space occupied by the 
heating plant and fuel were metal-covered, and air 
intakes, wherever they were of inflammable material, 
were replaced by metal. Finally, the heating and fuel 



r School, Oakland, California. 

spaces were equipped with automatic sprinklers, as were 
various out-of-the-way closets, storerooms, and in most 
instances the domestic science and manual training 
rooms. Each installation was provided with a regula- 
tion automatic alarm valve and bell on the outside of 
the building. 

Such installations go far to promote immunity from 
fire, contribute much to the safety of the occupants, 
and reduce the cost of insurance. 

Standpipes and Fire Hose. — Standpipes and fire 
hose should be installed so that any portion of the build- 
ing can be reached by a length of hose not exceeding 
seventy-five feet. Hose should be provided in attic 
spaces and should be so located as to be readily accessible. 

The hose outlet should be full size, two and one -half inch , 
with standard fire department thread. One and one-half 
inch unlined linen hose in lengths of not over seventy- 
five feet, and racks which allow the hose to hang in loops 
are better than reels for holding the hose. Racks with 
a rated capacity of twenty-five feet more than the actual 
length should be employed, as this does not crowd the 
hose so much and there is less liability of its coming 
loose. It is understood of course that each hose outfit 



PLUMBING 



549 



requires a hose reducer if small hose is used, and in addi- 
tion, a spanner and two extra hose gaskets should be 
secured to each rack. 

Pipe Covering. — Some form of non-conducting cover- 
ing is required on hot-water piping. It is usually asbestos 
or magnesia. The cold-water should be covered with 
felt covering to prevent the drip of condensation and 
reduce liability of freezing. In some localities subject 
to very low extremes of temperature, covering is also 
extended to include, roof conductors in cold attics and to 
portions of the drainage piping. 

Plumbing Fixtures. — Plumbing fixtures should be 
selected with all due regard to the school and to their 
particular uses within the school. It might not be out 
of place to state here that range closets and range 
urinals have no place in any building making any pre- 
tense to sanitation. They are prohibited by law in 
most cities and should be in all. 

No attempt will be made here to state what the best 
types of fixtures are, but briefly what is customary in the 
Portland school district. 

Water closets are siphon-jet, and if installed in main 
toilet rooms, they are provided with raised rear vents 
and fan exhaust ventilation, — for boys' toilets extended 
lip, girls' toilets raised front. 



Seat-action closets are used in all elementary schools. 
This is open to discussion. The opponents claim, 
among other things, that seat-action, self-flushing closets, 
tend to make the children careless at home and else- ' 
where. 

Up to 191 6, many flushometer valves had been in- 
stalled, but few came up to anything like expecta- 
tions. The combination giving the best satisfaction 
is a high vitreous tank with or without seat-action 
feature. 

For elementary schools 13 -inch bowls are specified, 
weighing not less then fifty-five pounds each. For 
high schools and trade schools, 14-inch bowls, 60 pounds. 

Buff ware vented stall urinals, 18" wide and set 24" 
on centers with one five-gallon vitreous flushing cistern 
for each four urinals. The tanks are furnished with 
automatic flushing mechanisms, and a separate stop 
is placed hand high from the floor. 

Vitreous lavatories are used, and are provided with 
self-closing stops of the very best quality. 

Porcelain slop sinks, one on each floor, with hose bibb 
on the cold-water side. 

No porcelain enameled ware is used, excepting in 
sinks, which always are provided with roll rims and with 
back. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 

By Romaine W. Myers, Consulting Electrical Engineer 

Kind of Electric Service. Electric Lighting of Assembly Halls. Electricity for the Different Departments. Science Department 
Service. Switchboards and Panel Boards. Clock and Program Systems. The Telephone System. Lighting of Schools, (i) General 
Consideration. Specific Recommendations, (i) Natural Lighting. (2) Artificial Lighting. (3) Examples of Classroom Lighting. 

Code of Lighting School Buildings by IUamiitaling luiginnriiig Society. Preface. General Requirements. Intensity of Artificial 
Illumination. Shading of Lamps. Distribution of Light on the Work. Color and Finish of the Interior. Switching and Controlling 
Apparatus. Emergency Lighting. Inspection and Maintenance. 

Daylight: Intensity of Daylight. Direction of Light. Window Openings. Lighting Value of a Window. Window Shades. 
Light Courts. Maintenance. 

Artificial Light : Systems of Lighting. (1) a Direct Lighting System ; (2) a Semi-indirect System; (3) an Indirect System. Shad- 
ing of Lamps. Glossy Surfaces and Eye-strain. Color of Light. Design of Lighting Installation. Blackboards. Rehabilitating 
the Lighting of Old Buildings. Maintenance. 



Kind of Electric Service. — In planning the electrical 
installation for a school, the first requirement necessary 
after a study of the proposed building and local regula- 
tions, is to decide upon the system, that is, whether to 
use alternating or direct current and the voltage. As a 
rule the choice is limited by the service available from 
the power company. When choice is not thus limited 
it is of prime importance that a decision be made at 
once. Very often the power and light are taken from the 
same service. Where a separate power service is not 
obtainable, it is advantageous to install separate trans- 
formers, one set for light and one set for power. This 
installation will eliminate to a great extent any fluctua- 
tions of voltage that would otherwise exist in lamps if 
the lighting load were on the same transformers as the 
motors. 

The services to a school building should preferably 
enter underground and run direct to a main switchboard 
located in a switchboard room. This room should be 
locked and only authorized persons should be allowed to 
enter. The size of the services will, of course, depend 
upon the number of lights and motors that may be in 
the building. To obtain this estimate, it is necessary 
to make a complete layout of the proposed installation. 
A typical plan for a grade school is herewith shown in 
Figure 468. First, the outlets are carefully spaced to give 
a uniform illumination, the wattage being obtained by 
calculation. The next step is to circuit these outlets, 
placing no more on a circuit than are permitted by the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters or by the local 
rules and regulations. The wiring should all be placed 



in conduit, the sizes of conduit and wire therein should 
be shown on the plan for each run. The circuit runs 
terminate in stage switchboards or panel boards. Figure 
469 shows a typical panel board of a safety type, which is 
strongly recommended for all school work. All corridor 
and exit lights should be connected to a separate section 
in the panel board. They should be fed by direct 
feeders from the main switchboard and connected for 
emergency lighting to another meter located ahead of 
the regular one. Where separate service is available it 
is recommended that the emergency lighting be con- 
nected to it. All circuit runs should be carefully calcu- 
lated for size of copper. The voltage drop should not 
exceed 2 per cent. 

Electric Lighting of Assembly Halls. — The assembly 
hall and stage lighting should be controlled from the 
stage switchboard. Figure 469 shows diagram of con- 
nections for a grade-school stage switchboard. In 
Figure 470 is shown a diagram of connections for a high- 
school stage switchboard. A front view of this board 
is shown in Figure 471, the switches being all of the dead 
front safety type. A safety switch is recommended for 
all switches and switchboards that are not locked and 
under the exclusive supervision of one versed in electrical 
work. Industrial accident commissions in several states 
require a switch of this character. A detail of the 
safety switch used in switchboard (Figure 471) is shown 
in Figure 472. This switch has an iron handle similar 
to that of an oil switch, the exterior face being of sheet 
metal. On the lower portion of this face is a door, 
through which admission to the fuses may be obtained 




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Fig. 469. 

when switch is not in contact. The switch cannot be 
closed without closing the fuse door. Thus there are 
exposed no live parts whereby anyone could possibly 
receive a shock. In Figures 470 and 471, No. 1 is the 
grand master (400 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 2 is the stage 
main (400 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 3 is the main for the 
assembly-hall lights (100 amp. T. P. switch) ; No. 4 is 
the remote control switch (100 amp. T. P. switch) 
operated from push button No. 21 and from the moving 
picture operator's room ; No. 5 is the assembly-hall indi- 



vidual circuit switches ; No. 6 is the white-light master 
(100 amp. T. P.) ; No. 7 are the white footlights, first, 
second, and third border lights through dimmers No. 16 ; 
No. 8 is the red-light master (60 amp. T. P.) ; No. 9 are 
the red footlights, first, second, and third red border 
lights through dimmers No. 15; No. 10 is the blue 
master (60 amp. T. P.) ; No. n are the blue footlights, 
first, second, and third blue border lights through dimmers 
No. 17; No. 12 is the A. C. pocket master (100 amp. 
T. P.) ; No. 13 are the D. P. switches to pockets through 
dimmers No. 20 ; No. 14 are D. P. switches for operation 
of lights in assembly-hall lights ahead of remote control 
switch No. 4; No. 18 is the direct current master (100 
amp. D. P.) which controls switches No. 19 pockets on 
stage. At the ends of the above board grill doors made 
of iron wire (|") mesh should be provided. 

Direct current is generally obtained, when not other- 
wise available, by the installation of a motor generator 
set placed in the physics laboratory. 

In any school with a stage of sufficient size for the 
production of plays it is essential that an equipment as 
outlined above be included. 

It is recommended when purchasing a motion-picture 
projection machine that one be obtained that is equipped 
with an incandescent lamp for motion-picture projection 
service, as this is an improvement over the regular arc 
lamp type. Its simplicity and ease of operation com- 
mends it for school work. In providing for a motion- 
picture projection machine it is necessary to make 
provision for sufficient size feeds to the machine. 

Electricity for the Different Departments. — In a 
great many cities, cooking is now being done exclusively 
by electricity ; this method is rapidly on the increase. . 
In building a school, the domestic science department 
should be supplied with copper feeds of sufficient size 
to take care of several complete electric ranges and 
enough individual electric plates or combination cookers 
to supply the class. The feeds should run to a central 
panel located in the department, and from this panel 
individual circuits can be run to each operator ; each 
circuit should be controlled by an approved indicating 
switch, preferably the bull's-eye type. 

The domestic arts department should be provided 
with a separate panel from which separate circuits can 
be run to electric irons, mangles, sewing machines and 
washing machines. 

Science Department Service. — The science depart- 
ment should be equipped with a special switchboard so 
that current of various voltages and character can be 
transmitted at will to the laboratory tables and lecture 
rooms. A switchboard providing these functions is 
shown in Figure 473. The diagram of connections which 
are self-explanatory is shown in Figure 474. The 



554 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



direct current is provided from an outside source or 
from a motor generator. The low voltage is provided 
by a special multi-voltage motor generator. 

Current should be transmitted to each department in 
the manual training shops by separate feeders from the 
main switchboard to a safety panel in each department. 
It is recommended that all motors be individual drive, 
as this has proven the best type. Each motor should 
be on a separate circuit and should be furnished with a 
safety starter equipped with overload and no voltage 



release. Motors for all ventilating fans, etc., throughout 
should be controlled and equipped with a similar starter. 
Switchboards and Panel Boards. — All panel-board 
and motor feeders should run to the main switchboard, 
which is divided into two parts, power and light. The 
switchboard should be placed in a room designed ex- 
clusively for it and should be under the supervision of a 
competent authorized person. Figure 475 shows a front 
view of a main switchboard for a large high school. 
It is advisable to install a graphic wattmeter on the 





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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



555 



lighting load and one also on the power, as these will 
give on paper a daily record of the current consumed, 
thereby acting as a check on the consumption of current 
for any given time. 

Clock and Program Systems. — In any building or 
group of buildings where two or more clocks are used, 
the importance of having all clocks exactly alike cannot 
be overestimated. There is nothing more annoying 
than to find a difference of several minutes between 
two clocks, possibly in adjoining rooms ; and the only 
way to avoid such confusion is to install a high-grade, 
accurate master electric clock, carefully regulated, and 
then from it to control electrically all the other clocks. 
There are two kinds of secondary clocks : first, those 
operated by an ordinary clock movement and syn- 
chronized once an hour by the master clock ; second, 
electric dials, which are operated directly by the master 
clock. These are sometimes called minute jumpers, 
on account of the fact that the hands are moved once a 
minute only, instead of continuously as in an ordinary 



clock. Where the secondary clocks will not be subjected 
to much vibration, a synchronized system is usually 
preferred, but under difficult operating conditions the ■ 
minute jumpers will give better service, as they have 
no springs or gears which might be injured by vibra- 
tion. 

The electric program clock has become an essential 
feature of the equipment of the modern school. In a 
school building with numerous classrooms, it is no longer 
practicable to ring the signals by hand, for in many 
cases the classes are held at different periods, requiring 
a complex schedule of signals. The possibilities of a 
program clock will be readily appreciated when, by 
means of such a system, signals may be operated at any 
stated hour, day or night, on one or more different 
schedules, which may be automatically changed each 
day of the week, if necessary. Figure 476 shows a dia- 
gram of master clock, secondary clocks, program clock, 
program bells, yard gong, storage batteries, etc. Refer 
to Figure 468 as to their location in a layout of a school. 



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556 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




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The master and program clock is usually placed in the 
principal's office. 

A fire-alarm system should be installed in all schools 
and buildings. This usually consists of break-glass 
stations placed in the corridors as noted in Figure 468. 
From each break-glass station wires are run to an an- 
nunciator placed in the principal's office. If the glass 
is broken at the station the annunciator drop will operate 
and indicate from what point the alarm is turned in. 
For periodical testing the stations should be designed 
to permit operation by a key. Such testing should be 
done frequently. 

The Telephone System. — A telephone system should 
be installed in all schools. For large schools such as 
high schools, where a secretary is employed, it is recom- 
mended that a regular private exchange system be 
installed with telephones for each teacher. Such tele- 



phones should be of desk type if the teacher is provided 
with a separate room for an office. 

It is not customary or necessary to connect this 
exchange to outside service, as considerable expense can 
be eliminated by not doing so. The principal usually 
has in addition to his school telephone another telephone 
with connection to the regular telephone company. For 
grade schools it is recommended that a telephone cabinet 
of a type that can be placed on the principal's desk be 
installed (is"x6"X3")- The cabinet should be of the 
key-switching type with the necessary number of line 
equipments consisting of a visual signal with associated 
ringing and listening keys, also with a general call button 
by which all outlying stations may be called simultane- 
ously. A night-bell signal should also be provided. 
This equipment is wired so that upon removing the 
receiver from the outlying station, the visual signal 



ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



557 



associated with that station will show and night-bell 
signal operate. To answer the station call, the listening 
key on the cabinet board is thrown into listening posi- 
tion. The visual signal remains as long as the receiver 
of the outlying station is off the hook. In calling any 
or several stations, the respective keys are first thrown 
to the ringing position and then to the answering or 
listening position. Except when the general call button 
is used, keys then need only be thrown to the listening 



General Consideration. — The lighting of a school build- 
ing should be referred to a competent expert before the 
plans for the building are drawn. The importance of 
doing this early is evidenced by the fact that the orienta- 
tion of the building plays an important part in the 
design of those features which depend upon proper 
lighting for their effectiveness. 

Minimum intensity of illumination, 3.0 to 4.0 foot- 
candles on the plane of the desk top. 




IABORATORY SWITCHBOARD 

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position. The wiring between the cabinet and the out- 
lying stations consists of three wires, one common and 
two individual. This telephone system requires mini- 
mum number of batteries. Classroom telephones should 
be of the heavy fool-proof type, with receiver connected 
to the instrument by short flexible steel cable. 

Before acceptance is made all apparatus and wiring 
connected with the school should receive a careful 
inspection and test by a competent engineer. 

Lighting of Schools. — The following brief resume of 
requirements in school lighting was presented to the 
Committee on Lighting Legislation of the Illuminating 
Engineering Society for use as a basis in formulating a 
code on school lighting. 



Polished surfaces such as blackboards, glossy paper, 
polished desk tops, and glazed walls should be avoided. 

Light sources (sky or artificial) should be well out of 
the ordinary visual field. 

Glare from blackboards should be avoided. This can 
be done by carefully placing them, by lighting them 
artificially, by tilting them, and by having the surfaces 
of a matte finish. They should never be placed be- 
tween windows. 

Excessively bright contrasts should be avoided. A 
bright source should not be viewed against a dark 
background. The walls adjacent to a blackboard 
should not be too light in color. 

Surroundings such as walls and ceiling should be, in 



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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



559 



general, light in color. Ceilings and frieze should be 
practically white (high reflecting power). Walls should 
be reasonably lighted. Colors used should be white, 
gray, or tints of buff, cream, or olive green. 

Children should be taught how to safeguard ■ their 
vision, that is, how to hold their books, to assume a 
correct position relative to the light source, to complain 
of glare from blackboards, etc. 

Teachers should be instructed to teach these funda- 
mentals to children. 

Good lighting should be incorporated in every course 
where practicable, especially in the " home-making 
course." 

More Specific Recommendations. Natural Lighting. 
— The glass area should be ample, that is, an appreciable 
percentage, say at least twenty per cent (20%) of the 
floor area. 

The windows should preferably be located on one side 
of the room, to the left of the student. 

A portion of the sky should be visible from every desk 
top, at least 5 degrees vertically. 

The width of the room should not be more than twice 
the window height from the floor. 

The windows should be equipped with approved 
window shades for controlling the light and excluding 
direct sunlight. 

Prism glass should be used in extreme conditions. 

Lighting and ventilating courts should be painted 
white. 

Minimum illumination on desk top, 3 to 4 foot-candles. 

Diversity of illumination not greater than 100 to 1. 

Artificial Lighting. — Ample general lighting is recom- 
mended. Local units subject to control of pupils are 
condemned. 

Minimum illumination on desk top, 3 to 4 foot-candles. 

Light sources should be out of normal visual field if 
possible. 

Light sources should be equipped with diffusing glass- 
ware to reduce their brightness and screen the source 
from the pupil's eyes. 

Highest permissible brightness, 3 candle power per 
square inch when viewed against a light background. 

Blackboards should be lighted by properly screened 
and judiciously placed local units. 

The system of lighting will depend upon many condi- 
tions; any well-designed system is satisfactory in its 
proper place. There appears to be a growing tendency 
for the semi-indirect system. It appears more generally 
satisfactory for classrooms, reading rooms, etc. In the 
shops a direct system is advisable. 

No local units should be used unless absolutely 
necessary. 



Examples of Classroom Lighting, etc. — Assuming the 
usual classroom is 24'X32 r , Figure 477 shows a light- 
ing layout with semi-indirect units. Four lighting 
units are supplied, which is the minimum number desir- 
able. Each consists of a heavy density inverted bowl or 
reflector with 200-watt type C lamp. The top of the 
glass should be not less than 3 feet from the ceiling in 
rooms having ceiling height of 11 to 14 feet. Light 
color walls and light color ceiling was assumed in the 
above example, using 0.25 as the coefficient of utilization. 

Good results may be obtained with direct lighting. 
Although the diffusion is not so good as with well-de- 
signed semi-indirect, a considerable degree is obtained 
with a white ceiling, and the lack of complete diffusion 
is compensated for by so placing light units that the 
light is received on each desk from the best direction. 
Figure 478 shows a lighting layout with direct units. Six 
lighting units are supplied. Each consists of a sym- 
metrical prismatic reflector with 150-watt type C bowl 
frosted lamp. The reflectors are mounted on ceiling 
flanges fastened to the ceiling. Light color walls and 
light color ceiling was assumed in the above example, using 
0.40 as the coefficient of utilization. If walls and ceilings 
are darker, larger size lamps will, of course, be necessary. 

Auditoriums and assembly halls cannot be lighted 
according to definite rules, as conditions vary and the 
decorative side of the problem is important. Efficiency 
in this case is not important, although reasonable uni- 
formity should be obtained. Glare in any form should 
be carefully avoided, and the soft effect obtained by 
semi-indirect or indirect lighting is recommended. For 
low ceilings, for instance under the balcony, bowls or 
globes of heavy density glass giving a low transmission 
of light are advocated, thus insuring a low brilliancy of 
surfaces in the ordinary range of vision. 

The stage of auditorium and assembly halls should 
be provided with footlights and overhead lights of 
sufficient quantity to give at least 20 foot-candles on 
the subject. In the larger auditoriums (high schools) 
provisions should be made for footlights, border lights, 
side lights, flood lights, and spot lights. These should 
be connected with dimmers so that gradation in intensity 
can be easily obtained. 

CODE OF LIGHTING SCHOOL BUILDINGS 1 

Copyright 1918 by 

Illuminating Engineering Society 

29 West 39th Street, New York City 



There are 23,000,000 school children in the United 
States who are devoting several hours each day to study 



1 Permission to use granted to the writer and the cuts famished by the Illuminating Engineering Society. 



560 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



or to the performance of other work equally trying to 
the eyes. According to the available statistics, nearly 
10 per cent of the number of school children examined 
are found to have defective vision. 

The severe requirements imposed upon children's 
eyes by modern educational methods create need for 




the best of working conditions. Among these conditions 
lighting is of first importance. Improper fighting causes 
eye-strain, resulting in functional disorders, near-sighted- 
ness and other defects of the eyes. 

The following Code of Lighting School Buildings has 
been prepared by committees of the Illuminating 



Engineering Society in order to make available authori- 
tative information for legislative bodies, school boards, 
and others who are interested in enactments, rules and 
regulations for better lighting. 

The requirements of the code as set forth in the 
Articles are based upon good practice at the present 
time. Standards of illumi- 
nation and other require- 
ments are subject to revision 
by the Society with advances 
in the art of lighting. 

While the code is intended 
primarily as an aid in formu- 
lating legislation relating to 
the lighting of school build- 
ings, it is also intended for 
school authorities as a guide 
in individual efforts to im- 
prove lighting conditions. 

Acknowledgment is made 
of the valuable cooperation 
of many members and non- 
members of the Society in 
the preparation of this code. 
Further information on 
this subject may be obtained 
by addressing the Illumi- 
nating Engineering Society, 
29 West 39th Street, New 
York, N. Y. 

Article I. General Re- 
quirements. — When in use, 
all buildings should be pro- 
vided, during those hours 
when daylight is inadequate, 
with artificial light accord- 
ing to the following Articles. 
Buildings hereafter con- 
structed should be so de- 
signed that the daylight in 
- the work space is reasonably 
uniform and the darkest part 
of any work space is adequately illuminated under normal 
exterior daylight conditions. 1 

Article II. Intensity of Artificial Illumination. — The 
desirable illumination to be provided and the mini- 
mum to be maintained are given in the following 
table : 2 



1 Daylight illumination values should be at least twice the values given in the Table, Article II, for artificial lighting. 

2 The illumination intensity should be measured on the important plane, which may be the desk-top, blackboard, etc. 

The method of computing the flux of light (lumens) required to do any desired illumination is described under the heading "Design of Lighting 
Installation" on page 565. 

For more specific information regarding the lighting of shops, see "Code of Lighting Factories, Mills and Other Work Places," issued by the Illu- 
minating Engineering Society. 



ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



56i 



Desirable and Minimum Illumination 



Storage spaces 

Stairways, corridors 

Gymnasiums 

Rough shop work 

Auditoriums, assembly rooms 

Classrooms, study rooms, libraries, labora 

tories, blackboards 

Fine shop work 

Sewing, drafting rooms 




Article III. Shading of Lamps. — Lamps should be 
suitably shaded to minimize glare. Glare, either from 
lamps or from unduly bright reflecting surfaces, produces 
eye-strain. 

Article IV. Distribution of Light on the Work. — 
Lamps should be so arranged as to secure a good distribu- 



Article VI. Switching and Controlling Apparatus. — 
Basements, stairways, storerooms, and other parts of the 
building where required, should have switches or con- 
trolling apparatus at point of entrance. 

Article VII. Emergency Lighting. — Emergency light- 
ing should be provided at main stairways and exits to 
insure reliable operation when, through accident or 
other cause, the regular lighting is extinguished. 

Article VIII. Inspection and Maintenance. — All 
parts of the lighting system should be properly main- 
tained to prevent deterioration due to dirt accumulation, 
burned-out lamps and other causes. To insure proper 
maintenance, frequent inspection should be made at 
regular intervals. 

NOTES — DATA AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

DAYLIGHT 

Intensity of Daylight. — In general, the minimum 
intensities of daylight illumination should be consider- 



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tion of light on the work, avoiding objectionable shadows 
and sharp contrasts of intensities. 

Article V. Color and Finish of Interior. — Walls 
should have a moderate reflection factor ; the preferred 
colors are light gray, light buff, dark cream and light 
olive green. Ceilings and friezes should have a high 
reflection factor ; the preferred colors are white and 
light cream. Walls, desk-tops and other woodwork 
should have a dull finish. 




ably greater than those provided in artificial lighting, 
owing to the adaptation of the eye. to a much higher 
level of illumination (brightness) in the daytime. 

Direction of Light. — One of the fundamental rules 
for proper lighting of desks is to have the preponderance 
of light come from the left side. For this reason many 
school authorities advocate unilateral lighting, that is, 
lighting by windows located on one side of the room only, 
especially for classrooms. (See Figure 479.) This method 



1 It should be borne in mind that intensity of illumination is only one of the factors on which good seeing depends. 

2 Under the column headed "Ordinary practice," the upper portion of the range of intensities is preferable to the lower; where economy does not 
prohibit, even higher intensities than those cited are often desirable. 



56.2 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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of lighting is recommended where the rooms do not ex- 
ceed about 24 feet (7.9 m.) in width, with windows about 
12 feet (3.9 m.) high. If the rooms are much wider than 
this, bilateral lighting, that is, lighting by windows located 
on two sides of the room, may be required in order to 
provide sufficient illumination in every part of the room 
and at the same time to prevent too great a diversity of 
contrast in the intensity of light on the work spaces. 



To secure the highest lighting value it is recommended 
that the room be so designed that no working location 
is more distant from a window than one and one-half 
times the height of the top of the window from the 
floor. 

Windows at the left and rear where practicable are 
preferable to those on the left and right sides of the room, 
because of cross shadows created by the latter arrange- 
ment. Lighting by overhead sources of natural illumi- 
nation, although sometimes used for assembly rooms, 
auditoriums and libraries, with relatively high ceilings, 
has ordinarily little application in classrooms and has 
found little favor in practice. 

The sky as seen through a window is a source of glare. 
For this reason the seating arrangements should always 
be such that the occupants (pupils) of the room do not 
face the windows. 

Window Openings. — Tests of daylight in well-lighted 
school buildings indicate that, in general, the glass area 
does not fall below 20 per cent of the floor area. 

As the upper part of the window is more effective in 
lighting the interior than the lower part, it is recom- 
mended that the windows extend as close to the ceiling 
as practicable. 

Lighting Value of a Window. — The lighting value 
of a window at any given location in the room will 
depend upon the brightness of the sky, the amount of 
sky visible through the window at the given location 
in the room, and indirectly upon the reflection factor of 
the surroundings and the dimensions of the room. 

Observations in well-lighted schoolrooms having a 
comparatively unobstructed horizon, show that under 



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ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



563 



normal conditions of daylight, satisfactory illumi- 
nation is usually obtained when the visible sky 
subtends a minimum vertical angle of 5 at any 
work point of the room. 

In cases in which the horizon is obstructed, 
as by adjacent high buildings or by high trees, 
provision should be made for a larger window 
area than would otherwise be required ; also if 
need be, for redirecting the light into the room 
by means of prismatic glass in the upper sashes 
of the windows, or by prismed canopies outside 
of the windows. 

Window Shades. — Although direct sunlight 
is desirable in interiors from a hygienic stand- 
point, it is often necessary to exclude or diffuse 
it by means of shades. These shades should 
perform several functions, namely, the diffu- 
sion of direct sunlight, the control of illumination 
to secure reasonable uniformity, the elimination of 
glare from the visible sky and the elimination of glare 
from the blackboards wherever possible. These require- 
ments make it desirable to equip each window, especially 
in classrooms, with two shades operated by double 
rollers placed near the level of the meeting rail. The 
window shades may thus be raised or lowered from the 
middle, which provides the maximum elasticity for 
shading and diffusing the light. The shades should be 
preferably of yellow-colored material that is sufficiently 
translucent to transmit a considerable percentage of the 
light while at the same time diffusing it. 

A more complete control of the light may be obtained 
by the use of two independent sets of shades at each 
window. Where two sets of shades are used, one should 





be preferably a very dark green of heavy material that 
will exclude the light entirely, and the other preferably 
a yellow-colored material as above described. 

Different views of a window equipped with a single 
set of adjustable shades as used in the public schools of 
New York City are shown in Figure 480. It will be 
noted that this method of installation permits of lowering 
the window from the top or raising it from the bottom 
without interference with the shades. 

Light Courts. — Reflection of light from the walls of 
courts is very helpful in increasing interior illumination. 
Hence the walls of courts should have high reflection 
factors. Dark colors should be avoided. 

Maintenance. — Windows and overhead sources of 
natural light (so-called skylights) should be washed at 
frequent intervals, and surfaces such as ceilings and walls 
should be cleaned and refinished sufficiently often 
to insure their efficiency as reflecting surfaces. 
It should be borne in mind that the maintenance 
of adequate daylight indoors is also dependent 
upon various external factors, such as the future 
erection of buildings and the growth of trees or 



ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 

Systems of Lighting. — It is customary to 
divide the systems of artificial lighting into three 
classes, namely, direct, semi-direct, and indirect. 
This division is arbitrary and the boundary lines 
are quite indefinite. 

A direct lighting system is known as one in 
which most of the light reaches the work plane 
directly from the lighting unit including the 
accessory which may be an opaque or glass re- 
flector or a totally inclosing transparent or trans- 
lucent envelope. Direct lighting systems may 



564 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



be further classified as localized and general or distribut- 
ing. In the former the units are so placed as to light 
local work spaces, and in the latter they are well dis- 
tributed so as to light the whole area more or less uni- 
formly. 

A semi-indirect system is known as one in which a 
portion of the light reaches the work plane directly from 
the unit and a relatively large portion reaches the work 



■ 

1 m \m g'tfgae 


%^--^ 











Fig. 483. 

plane indirectly, by reflection from the ceiling and walls. 
The accessory is usually an inverted diffusing bowl or 
glass reflector. When this glass has a high transmission 
factor the lighting effect approaches that of ordinary 
direct lighting, and when of low transmission, the effect 
approaches that of indirect lighting. 

An indirect system is known as one in which all or 
practically all the light reaches the work plane indirectly 
after reflection from the ceiling and walls. The acces- 



sory is usually an opaque or slightly translucent inverted 
bowl or shade containing a reflecting medium. 

All three of these systems of lighting (illustrated in 
Figures 481, 482, and 483) are in successful use in schools. 
There has been a growing preference for semi-indirect 
and indirect lighting, especially since the introduction 
of modern lamps of great brilliancy. Local lighting by 
lamps placed close to the work is unsatisfactory except 
for special cases such as the lighting of black- 
boards, maps, charts, etc. Examples of bad 
lighting are shown in Figures 484, 485, and 486. 
Shading of Lamps. — Except in very rare 
instances bare light sources should not be ex- 
posed to view. They should always be ade- 
quately shaded or completely hidden. Even 
when shaded by translucent media, such as 
dense glassware, the lighting units should be 
placed well out of the ordinary range of vision ; 
in other words it is recommended that lighting 
units be of low brightness, 1 even if they are lo- 
cated high in the field of view. 

The maximum brightness contrast of juxta- 
posed surfaces in the normal visual field should 
be preferably not greater than 20 to 1 ; that is 
to say, the darkest part of the work space ob- 
served should have a brightness preferably not 
less than one-twentieth of that of the brightest 
part. 
Glossy Surfaces and Eye-strain. — Glossy surfaces of 
paper, woodwork, desk-tops, walls and blackboards are 
likely to cause eye-strain because of specular or mirror- 
like reflection of images of light sources, especially when 
artificial light is used. Matte or dull finished surfaces 
are recommended. It is to be noted that a high reflec- 
tion factor does not necessarily imply a polished or glazed 
surface. 

To minimize eye-strain it is recommended that un- 



Millilamberts 


Candles 




per sq. in. 


5- to 75. 


0.01 to 0.15 


35. to 100. 


0.07 to 0.2 


200. to 1,000. 


0.4 to 2.0 



1 Preferably not to exceed 250 millilamberts. A millilambert is equal to the brightness of a perfectly reflecting and diffusing surface illuminated 
an intensity of 0.929 foot-candle (0.929 lumen per square foot). It is also equal to 0.202 candle per square inch. 
The following table shows the order of magnitude of the brightness of some light sources in common use : 

Approximate brightness 



Indirect lighting : ceiling, directly above the lighting unit . 
Semi-indirect lighting : heavy density glassware .... 

" " " light density glassware 

Direct lighting : 10 in. (25 cm.) opal glass ball containing 

1 00- watt vacuum tungsten lamp at center 

" vacuum tungsten lamp (frosted), in open 

bottom reflector 

Vacuum tungsten lamp, filament exposed to view . . . 
Gas-filled tungsten lamp, filament exposed to view . . . 

Gas-mantle, bare 

" concealed in 6 in. (15 cm.) opal glass globe 

Mercury arc tube (glass) 

Daylight : clear blue sky 



1000. 



ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



565 



glazed paper and large plain type be used in 
school books. 

Children should be taught to hold their 
books properly, to assume a correct position 
relative to the light source, and to safeguard 
their vision. 

Color of Light. — It has been found in prac- 
tice that the admixture of daylight and arti- 
ficial light is not satisfactory unless the latter 
is derived from lamps designed with special 
reference to producing daylight color values. 
Hence in waning daylight it is desirable to 
shut out the daylight and to use artificial light 
exclusively unless the lamps are of the type 
mentioned. 

Design of Lighting Installation. — The illumi- 
nation intensity on the horizontal work plane 
should be as uniform as possible. The varia- 
tion should not be greater than 4 to i 1 . 



Approximate Coefficients of Utilization — Modern Lighting 
Equipment 




Small Rooms (offices, corridors, etc.). 

Direct lighting ; dense glass (open bottom 

• reflectors) 

Semi-indirect lighting ; dense glass . . . 
Indirect lighting 

Medium Sized Rooms (classrooms, 
Laboratories, etc.). 

Direct lighting ; dense glass (open bottom 

reflectors) 

Semi-indirect lighting; dense glass . . . 
Indirect lighting 

Large Rooms (Auditoriums, etc.). 

Direct lighting ; dense glass (open bottom 

reflectors) 

Semi-indirect lighting ; dense glass . . . 
Indirect lighting 



Light Color 

Walls 

Light Color 

Ceiling ■ 



°-35 
0.30 



0.62 
o.43 



Medium Color 

Light Color 
Ceiling 



Fig 484. 

relative dimensions of the room, the reflection factor of 
the surroundings, the number of lighting units and 
their mounting height, and the system of lighting. By 
coefficient of utilization is meant the proportion of the 
total light flux emitted by the lamps which is effective 
on the work plane. In the accompanying table ap- 
proximate coefficients of utilization for modern lighting 
equipment are given. The work plane in this case is a 
horizontal plane 30 inches (76 cm.) above the floor. 
These values refer to the initial installation without any 
allowance for depreciation. 

For determining approximately the size and number 
of lamps to be used in a given room by means of the 
coefficients of utilization given in the preceding table, 
it is necessary to know the luminous output in lumens 
per watt for the electric lamps considered or in lumens 
per cubic foot of gas consumed per hour if gas lamps 
are considered. At the present time (191 7) the light 
output of tungsten filament electric incandescent lamps, 
based on average service conditions of regularly main- 
tained installations, ranges from 8 lumens per watt for 
the smaller vacuum tungsten lamps to 14 lumens per 
watt for the larger gas-filled tungsten lamps employed 
in school lighting. For incandescent gas systems similar 
service values range from 150 to 250 lumens per cubic 
foot of artificial gas consumed per hour. The computa- 
tion for the total lumens required to give a certain 
illumination intensity in foot-candles is as follows : 



The chief factors which must be considered in arriving 
at the size and number of lamps to be used in a given 
room are (1) the floor area; (2) the total luminous flux 2 
emitted per lamp, and (3) coefficient of utilization of the 
particular system considered. The first should be 
measured in square feet. The second may be obtained 
from a data book supplied by the manufacturers of 
lamps. The third involves many factors, such as the 

1 This ratio refers to the light received by the object illuminated and should not be confused with the ratio of 20 to 1 for brightness contrast pre- 
viously given under shading of lamps, which refers to the light radiated by the object. For example, a blackboard and a white sheet of paper on it 
may receive the same amount of light, but the latter will reflect much more light than the former, thus causing a marked brightness contrast 
between the two surfaces. 

2 The flux is measured in lumens. A lumen is the unit of light flux and is the quantity of light required to illuminate 1 square foot of area to an 
average intensity of 1 foot-candle. 



5 66 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 485. 



N = number of lamps. 
L = lumens output per lamp. 
E = coefficient of utilization. 

A = area of floor or horizontal work plane in square feet. 
I = illumination intensity in foot-candles. 
NxLxE 
A 
that is, the number of lamps multiplied by the output 
per lamp in lumens, multiplied by the coefficient of 



If the size of the lamps is to be ascertained the compu- 
tation is made thus : 

T - IxA 

NXE 
To illustrate by an example, assume a room whose floor 
(also work plane) is 30 feet by 18 feet (9.1 m. by 5.5 m.) 
to be lighted by a semi-indirect system from six fixtures 
containing one lamp each. It will also be assumed that 
the ceiling is highly reflecting, the walls moderately 
reflecting, and the illumination intensity desired is 5 
foot-candles. The luminous output required of each 
of the six lamps will be found by substituting the assumed 
values in the equation, thus : 
Lr _ 5X3QXi8 = 
6X0.30 

Allowing a depreciation factor of 20 per cent as represent- 
ing a well-maintained installation, the lumens actually 

required would be -^-— = 1875 lumens. If gas-filled 
0.8 

tungsten lamps are considered, whose average output 

under service conditions is 12 lumens per watt, it is 



;*><' 




* 






utilization, divided by the area of the horizontal work 
plane in square feet, gives the illumination intensity in 
foot-candles. 



= 1 500 lumens 




Fig. 486. 

seen that a 150- watt lamp in each fixture will give the 
desired results. 

If gas-mantle lamps are considered, whose average 
output in lumens under service conditions is 250 lumens 
per cubic foot of gas consumed per hour, it is seen that 
a lamp consuming 5 cubic feet of artificial gas per hour 
will be satisfactory in each fixture. 

The above example is intended solely to illustrate 
the method of computation. Estimates of the illumina- 
tion intensity obtained from an' actual installation may 
also be made by a similar computation. 

Suitable switching and controlling arrangements should 
be made to permit of lighting one or more lamps inde- 
pendently as conditions may require. 



ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION AND ILLUMINATION 



567 



The teacher's desk may be illuminated by 
one of the overhead lighting units, or, if neces- 
sary, by a desk lamp. 

With the usual lighting equipments the 
distance between the units should not exceed 
one and one-half times the height of the ap- 
parent source of illumination above the work- 
ing level. 

Blackboards. — Blackboards should be of f~ — 
minimum size practicable and should not be 
placed between windows. Their position should be care- 
fully determined so as to eliminate the glare due to 
specular reflection of images of either artificial or natural 
light sources directly into the eyes of occupants of the 



1 


r=n 


1 


U" 


Y u_ 

"I 




I! 


\ \^mmmkwr~\ 



-A 



I- 


j 'y 


1* 




r 


Lfi 


—I 



Fig. 489. 

room. The surface of blackboards should be as dull as 
possible, and this dullness should be maintained. 

Glare, due to specular reflection from blackboards, 
may be reduced or eliminated by lighting them by means 
of properly placed and well-shaded local artificial light 
sources. 

In Figure 487 are shown some simple graphical consid- 
erations of blackboard lighting. In (a) is shown a plan 
view of a room with windows on one side. Rays of light 
are indicated by A, B, and C in a horizontal projection. 
These are supposed to come from bright sky. By the 
application of the simple optical law of reflection — the 
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection — it 
is seen that pupils seated in the shaded area will ex- 
perience glare from the blackboards on the front wall. 
In (b) is shown the vertical projection of the foregoing 
condition. It will be apparent from this graphical 
illustration that by tilting the blackboard away from the 
wall at the top edge, the pupils in the back part of the 
room will be freed from the present glaring condition. 
Whether or not this tilting will remedy bad conditions 
may be readily determined in a given case. In (b) the 
effect of specular reflection of the image of an artificial 
light source is shown by D. In (c) is shown a proper 
method of lighting blackboards by means of artificial 
lighting units. This will often remedy bad daylight condi- 
tions, whether due to an insufficient illumination intensity 
of daylight or due to reflected images of a patch of sky. 



Fig. 488. 
In order to avoid excessive brightness contrast which 
is trying to the eyes, blackboards should not be placed 
on a white or highly reflecting wall. 

Rehabilitating the Lighting of Old Buildings. — This 
will be illustrated by an actual case where the 
artificial lighting of a classroom was made satis- 
factory at a small expense. In Figure 488 is 
shown an elevation of a section of the classroom 
showing the old fixtures. In Figure 490 the 
circles containing crosses © indicate' the posi- 
tions of the two old fixtures in this room. The 
chief objections to this old system were as follows : 
(1) The lighting units were hung too low, 
so that eye-fatigue resulted from the bright 
sources in the visual field. 

(2) The light sources were not shielded from the 
pupils' eyes. 

(3) Two fixtures are insufficient to provide satisfactory 
illumination over the entire work plane in a room of 



i r 



E3 lk _M_H \h- 



□'"TZrO*D 



s a a 

_H.__y__n_. 

tj □ jzj 

Q Q H 



H 



□ M-a 



ETTT 



s 



sis 



pt"P! " 



5 68 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



the dimensions shown. This unsatisfactory condition 
was remedied by means of six fixtures placed as indicated 
by the circles H in Figure 490. 

These fixtures, shown in elevation in Figure 489, 
consisted of inverted diffusing glass shades containing 
one lamp each. The dimensions of the room are shown 
in the illustration. 

Maintenance. — A systematic maintenance should be 
provided in order to insure against depreciation in the 



illumination intensity due to burned-out lamps, broken 
gas mantles, discoloration, etc., and to accumulations of 
dirt upon the lamps, and upon the surfaces of the 
reflecting and transmitting media. It is found in 
practice that carelessness in this respect may easily 
reduce the effective illumination by 50 per cent, espe- 
cially in indirect and semi-indirect lighting. 
Issued April 30, 191 8. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

STANDARDS OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 

By Frank Irving Cooper, Architect, Chairman, National Education Committee on Standardization of Schoolhouse 

Planning and Construction 

General Statement. Rules for Measuring and Tabulating Buildings. Application of Measurements. Division of Floor Area. 
Functions of the Divisions of Floor Areas, (i) Administration. (2) Instruction. (3) Accessories. (4) Stairs and Corridors. (5) Flues. 
(6) Walls and Partitions. Results from Eighty Buildings Measured. A Vision of the Future. Addenda : Standard Types of Construc- 
tion. 



General Statement. — Changes in the country's edu- 
cational program are creating new demands in school- 
house construction. To satisfy these demands, to pro- 
duce schoolhouses which shall meet the new conditions, 
is the main issue now confronting the architect. 

The changes in education are due to economic and 
academic causes. The world war has been a factor in 
both these phases. From a purely economic stand- 
point it is necessary to conserve. The architect must 
be sure that all material is used, and all energy is ex- 
pended, to secure the greatest net result. 

The world war has accelerated the general trend 
toward a more flexible educational system. The edu- 
cator considers his work from a new point of view. 
The old-fashioned formal program, with its stereo- 
typed methods, was the inevitable product of an age 
which demanded that pupils in a given grade should, 
on a given day, recite practically the same lesson in 
standard graded schools from coast to coast. 

That old method is giving way to a new one, one 
which considers the pupil who may have only a few 
school years in which to prepare for his life work. Uni- 
versalism in education is yielding to individualism, 
the educational program which caters to the individual 
child. 

The increasing flexibility of educational courses, 
the changes which this imposes upon schoolhouse de- 
sign, and the economic pressure, all emphasize the 
imperative need of basic or fundamental standards 
in schoolhouse planning. 

The architect must be his own translator. That is, 
he must recognize the changes in educational methods 
and must translate the new terms of the educational 
world into necessary changes in his own architectural 
world. 

To guide him in this translation he must work or 



build upon a secure foundation. That foundation is 
made up of certain standards of construction and de- 
sign. If he lacks those standards no amount of mental 
effort, no thrust of individual cleverness, not even a 
flight of genius, will bring forth from his draughting 
board an efficient schoolhouse plan. 

The final test of structural worth in a schoolhouse is 
its working efficiency. A school building may well be 
called a factory, under corporate control. The super- 
intendents, principals, and teachers compose the op- 
erating force. The school board constitutes the board 
of directors. The pupils form the raw material. They 
are graduated as the finished product of the educational 
factory. The quality of their educational preparation 
for life is the dividend which is reaped by the stock- 
holders, who are the parents and taxpayers. It is the 
duty of the committee-directors and faculty-operatives 
to secure a high dividend rate from their educational 
plant. It is the duty of the school architect to provide 
them with a plant which shall be ioo per cent efficient, 
so far as the structural element is concerned. 

This duty is one which the individual architect may 
not shirk, if he is to be equal to the new conditions. 
If he cannot, in himself, meet the requirements, he will 
be outstripped by rivals who are competent. 

There is a high preventive factor, too, in knowledge 
of standards for schoolhouse planning. It is extrava- 
gant, from financial and utilitarian viewpoints, and it is 
dangerous, from the angles of safety and hygiene, to 
permit wastage of floor area when apportioning the 
space units which are to be used for instruction pur- 
poses in a school building and in apportioning the spaces 
which are to be used for administration and other 
purposes. 

The American Architect of November 6, 1918, said 
in an article on " Standardized Schoolhouse Design " : 



57° 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



"The building has a very important influence on the occupant, 
and to produce a satisfactory public-school pupil the teaching 
process must include the standard educative essentials and the 
process be carried on in a building containing certain physical 
characteristics and equipment which is complementary to the 
mental processes, hence the development of standard building 
requirements. ... If the architect has had the experience and 
acquired the knowledge necessary to enable him to design a 
satisfactory building, the possession of certain successful stand- 
ards may fortify him in combating the possible ill-conceived 
ideas and demands of untrained school board members. If he 
has not had this experience and its attendant judgment it will 
increase his knowledge and aid him in the solution of the problem." 

In other words, knowledge of planning standards is 
both offensive and defensive equipment. It fortifies 
the, architectural strategist against attack and sustains 
him in advancing his forces. 

We learn from the errors of our predecessors. When 
this nation was young its school buildings were not 




HATCHED STATES SHOW THE LOCATION OE BUILDINGS 

BY THE COMMITTEE 

THOSE STATES WHICH HAD LAWS ON CONSTRUCTION 

CROSS HATCHED IN ADDITION 

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

DCPARTME-NT OE SCHOOL ADMI NI5TRATION 

COMMITTEE ON STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL-HOUSE PLANNING AND C0N6T 



Fig. 491. 

" located." They " just happened." The school lot 
was all too often the least valuable site which could con- 
veniently be found in the community. The school 
building, as we are told by Barnard in his book on 
" School Architecture " and by May Ayres in " A 
Century of Progress in Schoolhouse Construction," 
was usually an unstudied affair situated at the cross- 
roads. 

The increasing care exercised in locating schoolhouses 
and the subordination of land values to educational 
needs make it all the more incumbent upon the school- 
house architect to justify the municipal sacrifices. His 
justification rests upon the distribution he makes of his 
schoolhouse area or floor space. 

The factors of time and space in schoolhouse opera- 
tion may not be employed to the point of the absolute 



ideal. The ideal employment of school hours would 
be to use them all solely for instruction. The ideal 
employment of schoolhouse space would be to use it 
all solely for instruction. 

But the complex curriculum of modern educational 
courses will not allow all the school hours to be devoted 
to instruction. The merest glance at a school program 
shows this. Reduction of time wastage is the duty of 
the educator. 

The ideal use of the school area or floor space is impos- 
sible on account of the requirements of other physical 
factors than those of instruction. In constructing a 
schoolhouse it is necessary to have exterior walls to 
close in the structure, interior partitions to divide this 
inclosed area into rooms, flues to convey air and gases, 
corridors to allow passage from room to room, and ad- 
ministration space. The latter includes provision for 
heating, ventilation, and sanitation. All these de- 
mands for floor space must be met by the arch- 
itect. Obviously, the space that is left may be 
devoted to instruction. 

The instruction area in a school building is the 
actual producing space of the educational factory. 
This production unit should be as large as pos- 
sible and be consistent with safety and adequate 
administration. 

The school structure must be adapted to the 
work which is to be carried on there. The build- 
ing must have the right shape, size, and arrange- 
ment of rooms. It must be properly heated, 
lighted, and ventilated. It must have suitable 
sanitary equipment. 

The design of the modern school structure 
should be elastic, not unyielding. It should be 
so built that floor spaces may be put, if neces- 
sary, to other uses than those originally in- 
tended. 
To secure these essentials and to proportion them so 
that they will dovetail into a harmonious and efficient 
whole, it is primarily necessary to work from certain 
standards in planning. These standards are now avail- 
able for the school architect. 
/ Until 19 16 practically no consideration had been given 
to the relative amount of floor space that should be 
allotted in a school structure to the various operating 
functions of the educational system carried on therein. 
In that year the National Education Association ap- 
pointed a committee to consider standardization of 
schoolhouse planning and construction. 

It was not and it is not now the intention of the Na- 
tional Education Association to bind or even to hamper 
the architect in his work. Rather it is the desire of the 
Association's Department of Administration, which 



TABULATED 
1915 ARE 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 



571 

16. Area of each individual space is to be taken separately 
in accordance with schedule. 

17. Wardrobes are figured inside the walls. 

18. Rooms having wall cabinets are to be figured from parti- 
tion walls. Cabinets are to be included with the room. 

19. Waiting spaces, closets, supply rooms, toilets, etc., in 
connection with offices shall be included with the office with which 
they occur. 

20. Toilets, showers, storage room, supply rooms, etc., when 
connected with a main division, shall be taken separately but 
be included with the total area of that division. 

Application of Measurements. — In applications of 
these measurements to the plan the chief operating 
divisions of the school structure must be considered. 
A schoolhouse, in its simplest architectural expression, 
consists of a certain total floor space which is to 
be divided into units for operating the educational 
plant. 

Division of Floor Area. — Educators and architects 
have agreed upon six main divisions of floor space ; also 
upon the relative value of each, as expressed in the 
percentage of the total floor space which should be 
allotted to it. Call the entire area of all floors one 
hundred per cent. These divisions and their relative 
values are : 

Division Floor Area 

Administration not more than 12 per cent. 

Instruction not less than 50 per cent. 

Accessories not more than 3 per cent. 

Stairs and corridors .... not more than 20 per cent. 

Flues .......... not more than 5 per cent. 

Walls and partitions .... not more than 10 per cent. 

Observe that this grouping sets aside not less than 
one-half the total floor area of the structure for the 
division of instruction. The allotments for the other 
five divisions are specified as " not more than " certain 
percentages, — as, not more than 20 per cent of the whole 
floor area for stairs and corridors. 

This minimum of fifty per cent for instruction is based 
upon the hypothesis that school buildings are planned 
primarily for instruction of pupils, and that this limit 
per cent is necessary if the structure is to meet the tests 
of economy and efficiency. 

The committee standards on schoolhouse planning 
are meant to have a certain elasticity. While the whole 
area given to Instruction must never fall below fifty 
per cent, it may exceed that percentage. In fact, the 
more it can exceed it, other considerations being equal, 
the more efficient will be the completed structure. On 
the other hand, the other divisions, such as Adminis- 
tration, Accessories and so on, may be allotted less than 
the percentage maximum quoted for each. But none 
of these five other divisions must ever exceed its per- 
centage maximum. 



directly appointed this Committee on Standardization, 
to provide both architect and educator with a measure 
by which a schoolhouse plan may be scaled so that the 
working efficiency of the completed structure may be 
determined before actual construction is begun. 

The committee made tabulations from plans of one 
' hundred and fifty school buildings, located in twenty- 
six different states of this country. (See Figure 491.) 

This chart shows the locations of the one hundred 
and fifty schools. The most representative parts of the 
country were covered by the committee's investigation. 
The committee was surprised to observe that the nation- 
wide variation in instruction floor-space existed in the 
various states separately. One might assume that dif- 
ferent state educational systems might account for 
the variation from coast to coast. But state bound- 
aries inclosed similar variations in the percentage of 
floor areas for instruction. 

Rules for Measuring and Tabulating Buildings. — 
A set of rules has been framed for measuring a school- 
house plan for standardization. These rules, number- 
ing twenty, are as follows : 

1. Every foot of space of the area of the building is to be 
included in the tabulation. The sum of the areas of the basement 
and each floor is called 100 per cent. Tabulations are to be checked 
until the sum of the various space items check within one-half of 
one per cent of the total area. 

2. Line of measurement for area of all floors is to be taken 
at the outside of exterior walls. Deduct all recesses which are 
the full story height. 

3. The area of basement floor is to be measured from same 
line as outside wall of first floor. 

4. Compute each floor and mezzanine separately. 

5. The area of light wells, courts, air shafts, etc., is not to 
be included in floor area. 

6. Areas of arcades, open porches, uncovered corridors, pergo- 
las, and open-air theaters or auditoriums are to be figured sepa- 
rately. 

7. In rooms and auditoriums which extend through more 
than one story the area of such space shall be deducted from the 
floor or floors through which it extends. 

8. In the case of an assembly hall or gymnasium which has a 
balcony, the area of such balcony shall be taken separately. 

9. In figuring walls or partition areas, no door or window 
openings shall be deducted, but the wall shall be figured solid, 
as though no openings occurred. 

10. Exterior walls and interior partitions are to be figured 
the finished thickness, including any lath and plastering. 

n. Large piers occurring in rooms are to be deducted from 
floor areas and added to wall areas. 

12. Flues are to be figured to include all surrounding walls 
and partitions except interior walls and partitions figured under 10. 

13. Chimneys are to be figured in as flue areas. 

14. Where closets, bookcases, or dead spaces occur in a bank 
of flues, same are to be figured in as flue area. 

15. Stairs extending a full story in height are to be taken as 
stair area. Steps not a full story in height are to be taken as part 
of the floor area of the room or corridor in which they occur. 



572 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



Functions of the Divisions of Floor Areas. — Each 
of these allotment divisions is to include certain struc- 
tural or educational functions, as follows : 

Administration. — All floor area connected with govern- . 
ment and maintenance of the school. It includes rooms 
for officials, instructors and medical department service 
and storage rooms, general wardrobes, sanitaries, and all 
space required for heating and ventilating equipments. 

Instruction. — Library, kindergarten, art or draw- 
ing rooms, class and study rooms, music rooms, labora- 
tories, domestic science, manual training, commercial 
arts, household arts, auditorium, gymnasium, drill 
halls, and swimming-pools. 



PERCEMTOGRAPn Of IflSTRUCTIOfl 

W 80 SCHOOL DUILDmG>S 




Fig. 492. ' 

Accessories. — Floor spaces which do not group under 
any of the other five main divisions, such as playrooms, 
general lunch rooms used for no other purposes, odd 
closets and storerooms. 

Stairs and Corridors. — The channels of all ordinary 
means of circulation and service ; they are essential 
to proper use of the building. 

Flues. — All vertical flues for conveying air or gases. 

Walls and Partitions. — This division, also styled 
" Construction," includes the floor area occupied by the 
exterior walls and the interior partition. 

Principles of safety form chief factors in the planning 
of some of these divisions. Walls and partitions, for 
example, are determined by engineering formulae for 
strength of materials, by building regulations, and by 
consideration of good construction. 

Flue areas are determined by natural laws which call 
for certain dimensions under certain fixed conditions 
to give a predetermined air movement laid out by the 
heating and ventilating engineer. 



Stairways and exits should be located so that there 
will be no pockets or dead ends to corridors. Exits 
should be located so that no point in any floor area 
served by them should be more than 75 feet distant 
along the line of travel from an exit; except in build- 
ings of Class A construction (see Addenda) in which a 
distance of 100 feet may be permitted. 

Every stairway more than s'-o' in width should be 
provided with continuous intermediate handrail sub- 
stantially supported. 

Corridors should never be less than 8'-o' in width. 
Main corridors should have a width of 48 inches for the 
first 50 persons to be accommodated thereby and six 
inches additional for each additional 50 persons 
or fraction thereof. 

Results from Eighty Buildings Measured. — 
The results from the first eighty buildings which 
were tabulated have been arranged in graphic 
form. The graph for education is shown by 
Fig. 492. 

This chart (Instruction) comprises all floor 
areas used directly for any activity educating 
the pupil. It also includes gymnasium, audi- 
torium, and any space for organized play or 
recreation. 

The percentage of floor space devoted to in- 
struction is laid out by the vertical spaces to 
scale, using the horizontal line at the base as zero. 
Note that the building on the extreme right 
has only 37.50 per cent of total floor area devoted 
to instruction, while the one on the extreme left 
gives 67.95 per cent. The norm for instruction 
in these eighty buildings is 50 per cent. 
It will also be noted that forty of the eighty buildings 
give more than 50 per cent of their total floor area to 
instruction. Future school buildings should show con- 
siderable increase over the 50 per cent means. 

The same method of procedure is applied to deter- 
mine the space percentages allotted to the five other 
main divisions in apportioning floor area. A tabula- 
tion was worked out of the average per cent of space 
given to the respective divisions. 

The committee found that the tabulations for all 
divisions gave average space percentages thus : Ad- 
ministration, 1 2 ; Instruction, 50; Accessories, 3 ; Stairs 
and Corridors, 20 ; Flues, 5 ; Walls and Partitions, 10. 

The percentages thus determined have been adopted 
by the committee, with the proviso that the Instruction 
division shall have a minimum of 50 per cent and moer 
if possible, and that the percentages set for the five other 
divisions shall be their maximum. 

The result of the study of the committee is shown by 
Figure 493. 



STANDARDS OF SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 



573 



This chart, " The Candle of Efficiency," conveys at a 
glance the standards by which the excellence of ap- 
portionment, of floor space for each of the main divisions 
of a school building may be judged. 

The chief use of a schoolhouse is for educational work. 
A tabulation of any schoolhouse plan, compared with 
the per cents shown by the candle, will show how nearly 
the plan meets the standards of efficiency as worked 
out from plans of schoolhouses already erected. 

The educator decides upon a certain program. Given 
this program, it is the province of the architect to supply 
the necessary space units for each requirement of that 
program. He must so distribute these space units 
that there shall be no wastage of floor area in the build- 
ing. Also he must secure the maximum of safety, com- 
fort, and convenience. 

A factor to be considered in allotment of floor space 
to individual educational activities is the proportion 
of the day that this floor space is used. In manufac- 
turing terms this is the " load factor." 

If the school day is six hours and the school week five 
days, then the working time has thirty hours. 

If a certain room is engaged in productive occupa- 
tion thirty hours per week, its load factor is ioo per 
cent. If it is occupied but fifteen hours per week, its 
load factor is reduced to 50 per cent. 

The logical test of efficiency in planning a school 
building is the proportion of the building which may 
be used for the manufacture of citizens, or, putting it 
another way, the proportion of the building which may 
be used for instruction purposes. 

In the nearest possible approach to the ideal, at least 
50 per cent of the entire floor area of the building may 
be used for instruction purposes 100 per cent of the 
school time. 

Waste hours in the use of a school plant are dis- 
tinctly the fault of the educator and of the community. 
But waste space is usually the fault of the architect. 

A Vision of the Future. — The school architect creates 
something which may be of tremendous aid to the 
educator in his work with school children. 

The architect must be a man of vision. He must 
make it possible for the teacher to work out new ideas. 
He must have in mind provision for the school of to- 
morrow, a school of new standards, which will require 
floor space for new kinds of educational activities. 

This school of to-morrow will need a great variety 
of different kinds of floor space, on the assumption that 
the educational subjects are to have different methods of 
treatment and that different forms of study will be 
pursued. 

This school building of to-morrow will have standards 
in simplicity and a quality of economy relatively rare 



at present. Every building will represent something 
more of human personality, personalities of the class- 
room, of teacher and class, personality in shop and 
laboratory, personality in entrance halls and reception 
rooms, all indicating the spirit of the educators who are 
directing the school. 

The school building of to-morrow must set a standard 
for the entire community. It will be used by parents 
as well as by children. It will represent a spiritual 



NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 

DEPARTMENT Of\§CHOOL, ADMINISTRATION 




THIS CANDLE. IS TO 
SHOW THE DIVISIONS 
INTO WHICH THE TOTAL 
FLOOR AREA OF A 
SCHOOL BUILDI-NG 
IS DIVIDED 

THE TOTAL FLOOR AREA 
IS TAKEN AS 100 PERCENT 



THE CANDLE - EFFICIENCY 

IN SCHOOLHOUSE PLANNING 

TRY THIS MEASURE 
ON YOUR SCHOOL BUILDING 
THEN SEND THE RESULTS TO 

COMMITTEE ON STANDARDIZATION OF SCHOOL 5UILDINGS 

FRANK IRVING COOPER 

CHAIRMAN • 33 CORNHILL * 60STON 



Fig. 493. 

ideal. It will represent democracy, free education, 
hospitality and good-will to every person entering its 
portals. 

As this educational problem widens, so will the prob- 
lem of school architecture broaden with it. The com- 
plexity of architectural detail will increase and, 'more 
than ever, it will be the imperative necessity of the 
school architect to have his plan founded upon the 
rock of standardization. 

ADDENDA 

Definitions and Standards of Types of Schoolhouse 
Building Construction adopted by Committees 'of the 



574 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

National Education Association, National Associa- position floor surface, and wood roof construction over fireproof 
tion of School Accounting and Business Officials of Public ceuin S- 

Schools, National Fire Protection Association, and The J yp ; C ' A building with masonry walls, fire-resistive corridors 

and stairways, but with ordinary construction otherwise, i.e., 
American Institute of Architects. ■ combustible floors, partitions, roof and finish. 

Type D. A building with masonry walls, but otherwise ordi- 

Type A. A building constructed entirely of fire-resistive nary or joist construction and wood finish, 
materials, including its roof, windows, doors, floors and finish. Type E. A frame building constructed with wood above 

Type B. A building of fire-resistive construction in its walls, foundation, with or without slate or other semi-fireproof material 
floors, stairways and ceilings, but with wood finish, wood or com- on roof. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



The following figures represent additional illustrative material 
as follows : 
Chapter V. Organization of the Elementary School as Affecting Buildings, Figures 494-585 
Chapter VII. Organization of the High School as Affecting Buildings, Figures 586-669 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



577 




Fig. 494. — McKinley School, Front Elevation, San Leandro, California. 



Mr. John J. Dnnnran, 




iii in ill iii 



^mWmmaSmi 



Fig. 495. — McKinley School, Main Entrance, Sax Leandro, California. 



Mr. John J. Done 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

Fig. 497. — Washington Elementary School, Front Elevation, San Leandro, California. 



5 8o 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 499. — Santa Fe Elementary School, Front Elevation, Oakland, Californ: 




Mr. John J. Donovan ana Mr. Louis P. 1 

Fig. 500. — Lockwood Elementary School, Front Elevation, Oakland, California. 




to^itmiL-i 






582 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



nri 1 * 


1 I 


IIE'JI 



Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect, and Mr. Louis P. Hobart, / 

Fig. 502. — Lockwood Elementary School, Patio, California. 




Mr. John J. Donovan, Architect. 

Fig. 503. — McChesney Elementary School, Front Elevation, Oakland, California. 



SUPPLEMEN TARY ILL US TRA TION 



583 




Fig. 504. — McChesney Elementary School, Terrace at Rear for Open-air Study, Oakland, California. 



5§4 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




GiLOVHJ) • FL OOR-, • FLAK ■ 

Fig. 505. — McChesney Elementary School, Ground Floor Plan, Oakland, California. 



r. John J. Donovan, Architect. 




/^/.^J^T • riO'O,^ ■ PL A A' - 



Fig. 506. — McChesney Elementary School, First Floor Plan, Oakland, California. 



Mr. John J. Donovan. .1.. '""< 



5 86 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 510, - Shepard School, Perspective, Chicago, Illinois. 



Mt. A. F. Hussande 




Fig. 511. — Rezin Orr School, Elevation, Chicago, Illinois. 



Mt. A. F. Hussander, Architect. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Jf-COND f-LOOR PUAJ 

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5 UPPLEMEN TA R Y ILLUS TRA TIONS 




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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Figs. 517 and 5 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



593 




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Fig. 519. — Lincoln Elementary School, Toledo, Ohio. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



595 




Mr. William Templeton Johnson, Arci 



PLAN 

5CALE -SflN.=flFooT 

Fran cis-W' Parker, school 
san oiego-.cal. 
Fig. 52 i. 



596 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. William Templelon Johnson, Architect. 

Fig. 523. — Francis W. Parker School, The Portico, San Diego, California. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 




Messrs. Perkins, Frllaws, and Hamilton, , 

Fig. 524. — Lincolnwood School, District 75, Evanston, Illinois. 



598 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




vSCHGDL BUILDING -DbT-K5- IVANSTON- ILL- 

•COLFAX JTBiET* M« DANIEL AVEUOt • 
•PELKIMS- FELLOWS & HAMILTOH • ALCHCTTCrs- 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 




Fig. 526. — Details of Doi 



Normal School, Newark, New Jei 



S UPPLEMEN TA R Y ILL US TRA TIONS 



60 1 






Messrs. Guilbert and Betelle. Architects. 

Fig. 528. — Ridge School, Newark, New Jersey. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



603 




Mr Edwin J. Symmes and Mr. William\H. Crim'Architea 

Fig. 530. — Grammar School, Crystal Springs District, Patio, Suisun, California. 




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Mr. Eduln J. Symmes and Mr. William 11. Crim, Architects. 
ELIMJNARY SKETCH, SuiSUN, CALIFORNIA. 



604 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. John J. Donoran, Architect, ana Mr. Louis C. Mullgardt, Associate Architect. 

Fig. 532. — Dueant Elementary School, Feont Elevation, Oakland, California. 



SUPPLEMENTARYl /LLUSTRA TIONS 



605 




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Messrs. WMlehome and Fonllhat 

Fig. 541. — Central Grammar School, Ground Floor Plan, Astoria, Oregon. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



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F'lfcST'FLOOIO'PLA-M' 



Fig. 542. — Central Grammar School, First Floor Plan, Astoria, Oregon. 




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SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



617 



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SC HOOLHOU5E 
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K.IRam anj IloffeinJ./lcfateetr. 




Fig. 548. — Schoolhouse, Atlantic Heights, New Hampshire. 



Messrs. Kilham and Hopkins 




620 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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Fig. 553. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRA TIONS 



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A T L fc E r 

S I CON D FLOOL PLAN 



FEHW005 (j UM MAR. SCHOOL- POUT UND- OL 

Messrs. Lawi 

Fig. 554. 



622 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



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BASEMENT FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN 

Fig. 555. — Lafayette Bloom School, Cincinnati, Ohio. 




Fig. 556. — Lafayette Bloom School, Auditorium, Cincinnati, Ohio. 



Messrs. Garter and Woodward, Architects. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



625 




Fig. 559. — Guilford School, Cincinnati, Ohio. 





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Afr. ./«/<« 7". Donovan, Architect, and Mr. Walter D. Reed, Associate , 

Fig. 567. — Claremont Elementary School, Oakland, California. 



6 3 6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 570. — ■ Jefferson School, Oakland, California, 



S UPPLEMEN TA RY ILL US TEA TIONS 



637 



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Fig. 571. — Elementary School, Albany, California. 



Mr. John J. Donovan, t 




Fig. 572. — Elementary School, Albany, California. 



6 3 8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 574. — Addison School, Cleveland, Ohio. 



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SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



645 




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Fig. 582. — Empire School, Cleveland, Ohio. 



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SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 




Fig. 587. — High School, Greenfield, Ohio. 



Mr. William B. inner. Architect. 



650 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 588. — High School, Greenfield, Ohio. 



Mr. William B. Itlner, Architect. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



651 




•RASLMNT • FLOOIL-JLAN- 



•SKETCH • PLAN- 
•HIGH -SCHOOL • At • GUWflEU) ■ OHIO- 
■fOR./AS.t-L- tKZ CLM'N- 




•GR.OVND ■ FLOOR. -PLAN- 
Fig. 590. — High School, Ground Floor Plan, Greenfield, Ohio. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



653 




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elko county high school. elko nevada 
Fig. 594. 



654 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




-mmmmmiM 



lgM:^l::i-i|l^ 



Mr. C. W. Dickey and Mr. John J. Donovan, 

Fig. 595. — Elko County High School, General Elevation, Elko, Nevada. 




Mr. C. W. Diclev and Mr. John J. Donovan, ArchUe 

Fig. 596. — Elko County High School, Main Floor Plan, P2lko, Nevada. 



S UPPLEMEN TARY ILL US TRA TIONS 



655 







Mr. C. W. Dickey and Mr. John J. Donovan, 

Fig. 597. — Elko County High School, Elevation of Dormitory, Elko, Nevada. 




Mr. C. W. Dickey 'Did Mr. John ./. Donovan, Architect 

Fig. 598. — Elko County High School, First Floor Plan of Dormitory, Elko, Nevada. 




Mr. C. W. Dlckei/ and Mr. John J. Donovan. Architects. 

Fig. 599. — Elko County High School, Second Floor Plan of Dormitory, Elko, Nevada. 



6 S 8 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




HICH 5CHOOL BUILDING • PO NT1 AC • M \C HIG AN • 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



659 





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Fig. 604. — New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




PLAT OF K ! EW TRIER TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, KENIL WORTH, ILLINOIS. 

PERKINS. FELLOWS d HAMILTON. ARCHITECTS, CHICAGO. 



5 UPPLEMEN PA R Y ILL US PRA PIONS 




•NtW TfclLIL'TOWRSHIP HIGHJCHOOL- KENI1W0BJH- ILLINOIS' 



s. Perkins. Fellows, and Hamilton, Architect* 



Fig. 606. — New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. 




Fill,, 1,,:. and Hamilton, Architects 



Fig. 607. — New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Messrs. Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Arcliilrrts. 

- New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, Illinois. 



6" UPPLEMEN TA R Y ILL US TRA TIONS 



663 




Fig. 609. — Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.. 



Mr. Edward Stotz, Architect. 




Fig. 610. — Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Mr. Edward Stotz. Architect. 

Fig, 613. — Schenley High Schoql, Third Floor Plan, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 




Stotz, Architect. 



Fig. 614. — Schenley High School, Basement Floor Plan, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



667 




Fig. 615. — Taunton High School, Taunton, Massachusetts. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 616. — Taunton High School, Taunton, Massachusetts. 



Messrs. Kilham and Hopkins, irchiucl-. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



669 



TAVNTON - MIG M - SCHOOL -TAVN TON - MA55^r 5 frr 




WASHINGTON - .3TRLE.T 

Fig. 617. 



!. Kilham and Hopkin 



670 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



TAVN TON -HIGH' 5 CH O O L : TAVNTO N MASS flS^"^" 1 ? 3 ^ c S"J^h. 




Basement - Plan - 



Messrs. Kilham and Hupl.ins, Architects 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



671 



TAVNTOIMHIGH- 5 Cli O Q L ' TAVNTO N - MASS 




F1R.3T - FLOOR. - PLAN 



672 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 



TAVNTON-HICH- SCHQQL-TAVNTQN"HASS Q 




5E.COND - flooj^ -Plan - 



;. Kilnnm and Nopkin 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



673 



TA VN TON • HIGH - SCHOOL -TAVNTON -MA.S5 




third - Floor .* Roor -Plan 



Messrs. Killiam and Hopkin 



674 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 622. — Polytechnic High School, Monrovia, California, 



Messrs. Allison and Allison, j 



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Messrs. Allison a: 

Fig. 623. — Polytechnic High School, First Floor Plan, Monrovia, California. 



5 UPPLEMEN TARY ILL US TRA TIONS 



675 



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Messrs. Allison and Allison, Architects. 

Fig. 624. — Polytechnic High School, Second Floor Plan, Monrovia, California. 



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Fig. 625. — Polytechnic High School, Monrovia, California. 



Messrs. Allison and Allison, Architects. 



6 7 6 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 627. — High School, Santa Monica, California. 



Messrs. Allison a. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRA TIONS 



677 







Fig. 628. — High School, Santa Monica, California. 



. Allison and Allisi 



678 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




Fig. 629. — High School, Santa Monica, Californ: 




Fig. 630. — High School, Santa Monica,, California. 



Messrs. Allison and Allisc 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



679 




, 3— 4 "- \* - >*' ■ : Ll 




Messrs. Allison and A 

Fig. 631. — High School, Santa Monica, California. 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 





•HIGH- SCHOOL- 

.JANTA MONICA ■ CAL - 



Messrs. Allison and Allison, 

Fig. 633. — High School, Basement Floor Plan, Santa Monica, California. 



SUPPLEMENTARY ILLUSTRATIONS 



681 




Mr. Frank I,. I'urlnnl ami Mr Frnhrirl; <; Mlnlhr, Axsuciulr Arrliilirlx. 



Fig. 634. — High School, Hamilton, Ohio. 



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SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 




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SELECTED REFERENCES 



* American Architect, New York, current numbers. 

*American School Board Journal. Bruce Publishing Company, 
Milwaukee, Wis. 

*Ayres, Williams, and Wood, Healthful Schools. Houghton, 
Mifflin and Company. Boston, 1918. 12 . 

*Bruce, William C, Grade School Buildings. Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin, Bruce Publishing Company (19 14). 235 p. 4 . 

High School Buildings. Milwaukee, American School Board 

Journal. (1013-1919.) 

A collection of floor plans and photographs of characteristic 

American High Schools. 

*Dresslar, Fletcher B. Rural schoolhouses and grounds. Wash- 
ington, Government Printing Office, 1914. 162 pages, illus., 
plans, plates. 8°. (United States Bureau of Education, Bulle- 
tin, 1914, No. 12.) 

School Architecture, Encyclopedia of Education, edited by 

Paul Monroe. Vol. 1. New York, The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 191 1, p. 183-96. 

*Dutton and Snedden. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. The Macmillan Company. 

*Hollister, Horace Adelbert. The planning and construction of 
high school buildings ; issued from the high school visitors' 
office, University of Illinois, for the guidance of school 



boards and those interested in high school construction. 
Urbana, The University of Illinois (1916). 70 p., illus., plates, 
plans. 8°. (University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XIV, No. 8, 
October 23, 1916.) 
— Public School Buildings and their Equipment with special 
reference to high schools. Bulletin No. 1, School of Educa- 
tion, University of Illinois (1910). 37 p. inch illus., plates, 
and plans. 

Two city high school buildings. American School Board 

Journal, 44 : 23-24, 55, April, 1912. 

*Mills, Wilbur Thoburn. American school building standards. 
(2nd. edi.) Columbus, Ohio, Franklin Educational Pub- 
lishing Co., 191 5. 616 p., illus., plans. 12 . 

*Modern Schoolhouses. Parts I-II, New York, the American 
. Architect, 1910-15. 

Perry, Clarence A. Social center features in new elementary 
school architecture and the plans of sixteen socialized schools. 
Division of Recreation. Russell Sage Foundation. New 
York. 55 p. 

* University of the State of New York. New York School Build- 
ings and Grounds. Vol. 3, nth Annual Report, 1917. 
(Splendid Bibliography.) 



GENERAL INDEX 



Absorption of sound waves in assembly halls, 325. 

Academic department of school, location of, 21; slight changes 
from customary requirements necessary in planning for, 22. 

Academic type of junior high school, building for, in. 

Accessibility, as argument for comprehensive type of high school, 
130. 

Acoustics, of school assembly hall, 324-327 ; of music department, 
349- 

Activities of physical education, classification of, 222-225. ■ 

Adams, William R., chapter by, on the cafeteria, 513-522. 

Adams Cosmopolitan School, San Francisco, tests of reach of pupils 
in, 271. 

Adaptability, a prime consideration in school construction, 157. 

Addison School, Cleveland, Ohio, 638, 639, 640. 

Administration division of high school, requirements for, 72-73. 

Administrative offices in school buildings, 243-252. 

Advertising, courses in, in commercial department of high school, 
402. 

Age requirements in typical vocational schools, 174, 175, 177, 178, 

. 181, 183, 189. 

Ages of pupils in different grades of school, 255, 260. 

Agricultural laboratories, 198. 

Agriculture, vocational, 159, 195-197; taught at Williamson 
School, 176; laboratory accommodations for courses in, 390-391. 

Air, proper supply of, for schoolrooms, 206-207 ; for gymnasium, 
229, 236. 

Air compressor for science department, 353. 

Air currents and ventilation, 206-207. 

Air filters, discarding of, 524-525. • 

Air registers, location of, in classrooms, 276-277. 

Air intake for heating and ventilating system, 535-536. 

Air washers, operation of, 537. 

Aisles, width of, in elementary classroom, 253 ; of assembly halls, 
332. 

Albany, Calif., Elementary School, 637. 

Albert R. Sabin School, Chicago, 111., 94, 95. 

Alexander Graham Bell School, Chicago, 111., 36-40. 

Almira School, Cleveland, Ohio, 641, 642, 643, 644. 

Americanization of foreigners, work of the school in, 4, 22 ; com- 
munity cottage for, in connection with junior high school, in. 

Andre, Edouard, quoted on relation of architecture and landscape, 
61. 

Andrews, Benjamin H., Education for the Home by, cited, 490. 

Anemometer, for measuring air currents, 206, 207. 

Apparatus, gymnasium, 229, 233-234. See Equipment. 

Applied chemistry, courses in and laboratory for, 377, 384. 

Applied physics, special laboratories for courses in, 364-368. 

Applied science, recent impetus given to, 21-22. 

Aquarium, in general science laboratory, 388, 390. 

Architect, collaboration of physical director with landscape 
designer and, in planning school grounds, 9; selection of, for 
school construction, 33 ; fee of, and service rendered by, 34-35 ; 
the landscape, and his work, 61-69; importance of work of, 
in classroom construction, 271-272 ; requirements and qualifica- 
tions for school architect, 573. 

Architectural drawing, courses in, 419; room for, 420. 

Architecture, landscape, 69. See School architecture. 



Art, study of commercial, 411. See Drawing. 

Art department of high school, requirements for, 74. 

Artificial lighting of schoolrooms, 563-568. 

Arts, trade education growing out of domestic, 469. 

Art work at Jane Hayes Gates Institute, 194-195. 

Ashland School, St. Louis, Mo., 105. 

Asphalt surfacing for playgrounds, on rock, 11 ; on concrete, n. 

Aspirating coils, use of, 530. 

Assembly hall, need for, 20; locating the, 21; in elementary 
school, 71, 320-321 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 
72, 321, 323; in high school, 73, 321, 323; estimated cost of, 
and of equipment, 80, 81 ; moving-picture apparatus in con- 
nection with, 94, 327-331; location of, in elementary school, 
95; combination of gymnasium and, 149; essential to proper 
equipment of modern school, 320; acoustics of, 324-327; organs 
in, 327; quietness an essential, 327; aisles and exits, 332; 
painting and decoration, 332-333 ; arrangements in, for musical 
performances, 346; electric lighting of, 550, 552. 

Astoria, Oregon, Central Grammar School, 609, 610, 611, 612. 

Athletic activities in physical education, 223. 

Athletic fields, for junior high schools, 8; for high schools, 75; 
plans and photographs of, 7, 15, 16, 17. 

Athletic period in physical education, 221. 

Atlantic Heights, N. H., School House, 617, 618. 

Attendance office in large high school, 251-252. 

Auditorium, combination of music room with, in elementary school, 
88; in junior high school, 113-114. See also Assembly hall. 

Automobile highways, attention to, in planning for school sites, 2. 

Automobile mechanics, school shop for, 425. 

Automobile shop, in industrial arts department of high school, 74 ; 
construction and equipment of, 446, 449. 

Aviary, for biological study, 396. 

Ayres, May, A Century of Progress in Schoolhonse Construction, 
cited, 570. 

Bacteria in air, dangers of, 206. 

Bacteriology, work in, 396. 

Bailey, Edna Watson, chapter by, on general science and biological 

laboratories, 385-396. 
Balance room, chemistry laboratory, 375, 377. 
Balderston, L. R., Laundering by, cited, 497 ; Housewifery by, 

cited, 499. 
Baldwin, Edward C, article by, quoted, 76. 
Balustrades to stairs, 312-313. 
Bank, the school, 401. 
Baseball backstops, wire cage, 15, 237. 
Baseball grounds, indoor, for junior high schools, 9. 
Basement floor plans of schools, 56, 107, 115, 116, 121, 136, 153, 

190, 199. 
Basket ball courts, for elementary schools, 8 ; for junior high 

schools, 81, 242 ; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 
Bathroom, in housekeeping unit, home economics department, 471, 

500. 
Bayonne, N. J., Vocational School, account of, 183-184. 
Beauty in school grounds, 61. 
Bedroom, in housekeeping unit, home economics department, 

500. 



714 



GENERAL INDEX 



Benson Polytechnic High School, Portland, Ore., shops, 434, 448, 

449,455,458; exterior, 528; heating and ventilating plant, 529, 

530, 532, 533, 535, 536. 
Berkeley, Calif., John Muir School landscape plan, 64; Edison 

Junior High School at, 124, 125; University of California 

(dental clinic), 216; (bookrack), 297. 
Betelle, James 0., architect, influence of work of, 18. 
Between-class relief period in physical education, 222. 
Bever and Usher, The Home Economics Movement by, cited, 468. 
Billing machines, classes in use of, 406. 
Biological laboratory, the, 385, 390, 391-396; outdoor, 396. 
Blackboards, space for, in primary grades, 95 ; material for, 268 ; 

sizes of slate for, 268-271 ; in physics lecture room, 351, 359; 

eye-strain caused by glossy surfaces of, 564 ; location and 

lighting of, 567. 
Bloomfield, N. J., Essex County School at, 200. 
Blue-print rooms, drawing department, 420-421. 
Blue-printing machine, electric, 421. 
Boilers for hot-water heating systems, 533~534- 
Boiler shops, schools should not be near, 6. 
Bookkeeping, courses in, 403-404 ; farm and household accounts, 

403-404; ofhee practice, 404. 
Bookkeeping department, high school, requirements for, 73. 
Bookkeeping desks, 404. 

Books, for science department, 352. See Library. 
Border plantation for school grounds, 69. 
Boston, Mass., Went worth Institute in, 184-187 ; dental clinic 

in, 216; plans of classrooms in schools of, 261, 262; seating 

arrangement for high school classrooms in, 260, 262 ; device 

used in, for tacking strips, 271 ; plan of cooking-rooms in, 485. 
Boston Cooking School, 468. 

Botany, courses in, and laboratory accommodations for, 390-391. 
Boys' gymnasium, apparatus for, 229, 233. 
Boys' Technical High School, Milwaukee, Wis., description of, 

181-182. 
Boys' Trade School, Worcester, Mass., 160, 172-174. 
Boys' Vocational School, Newark, N. J., 188-192. 
Boys' yard, play area and equipment for, in elementary schools, 

8 ; in junior high schools, 8 ; separation of, from girls' division, 9. 
Brass furnace, school foundry, 437. 

Brick pavements, for walks but not for surfacing playgrounds, 11. 
Brooklyn, N. Y., library of Public School, 29, 293 ; libraries of high 

schools in, 300-302; physics department, Pratt Institute, 367, 

368, 370, 371, 373 ; domestic science department, Public School, 

29, 480. 
Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, St. Louis, Mo., 20-24; 

kindergarten, 285, 286. 
Buffalo, N. Y., library of Hutchinson Central High School in, 298, 

299 ; museum cases, Hutchinson High School, 304. 
Building codes, proposed governmental, 29. 
Buildings. See School Buildings. 

Bulletin boards, in schools, 245 ; in school corridors, 309. 
Burdick, Anna L., description of trade and industrial schools for 

girls by, 190-195. 
Bushrod Playground, Oakland, Calif., 239. 
Business courses. See Commercial department. 

Cabinet shop, 167-168 ; equipment, 456, 461 ; arrangement, 461, 
463- 

Cafeteria, requirements for high school, 73 ; estimated cost of, and 
of equipment, 80, 81 ; in home economics work, 202; desirabil- 
ity of, for schools, 513; the kitchen, 513-519; the storeroom, 
519-520; cold-storage room, 520; dining-room, 520-522. 

Cafeteria management, training in, 488. 

Calculating appliances, classes in use of, 406. 

California, conditions in, as to high schools, 132; State law of, 
in regard to physical education, 220; State Manual on Physical 
Education, quoted, 221-222. 

California, University of, dental clinic at, 216. 



Cameras for schools, 356. 

Canvas for classroom walls, 274-275. 

Carpentry shop, typical, 167-168; location, arrangement, and 
equipment of, 463. 

Carpentry work in school-building, 32. 

Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago, 111., physical 
training facilities at, 228, 231 ; main entrance lobby, 316; as- 
sembly hall, 335, 336, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703. 

Ceiling height of classrooms, 260, 263. 

Cement pavements, inadvisable for surfacing playgrounds, n. 

Central Grammar School, Astoria, Ore., 609, 610, 611, 612. 

Central High School, Washington, D. C, 50-60, 306. 

Certain, C. C, writings on school library by, 291. 

Cesspools for schools, 542. 

Chairs for school library, 300. 

Chalk-rails, height of, 271. 

Chamber of commerce, junior, 402. 

Characteristics of good school sites, 4. 

Chart-posting space in physics lecture room, 359. 

Cheapness, economy vs., in school-building, 29, 31. 

Chemistry, rooms and equipment for courses in, 372-384. See 
Science department. 

Chemistry department, high school, requirements for, 73. 

Chemistry laboratory, location of, 21. 

Chicago, 111., Alexander Graham Bell School in, 36-40; Albert R. 
Sabin School in, 94, 95 ; McCormick Open Air School in, 211 ; 
physical-training facilities at Carter H. Harrison Technical 
High School, 228, 231, 316, 335, 336; plan of classrooms in 
schools of, 257 ; location of wardrobes under plan of classroom 
in, 267, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703 ; Henry O. Shepard 
School, 585, 586 ; Rezin Orr Public School, 586, 587, 588, 589 ; 
Lindblom High School, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. 

Children, effect on, of exterior of schools, 26-28; influence on, of 
beautiful school grounds, 61 ; teaching the care of, in home 
economics department, 500-501. 

Children's play space, 8, 9, 237. 

Cincinnati, Ohio, Lafayette Bloom School, 622, 623; Guilford 
School, 624, 625, 626; Westwood Public School, 627, 628, 629, 
630. 

Civic biology, use of phrase, 390. 

Claremont Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 632, 633. 

Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, St. Louis, Mo., 19. 

Classes, size of, in high schools, 139-140. 

Classical, avoidance of the, in modern school design, 27. 

Classroom, requirements for, in junior high and pre-vocational 
schools, 72 ; cost per, as method of computing cost of school 
buildings, 75; estimated cost of equipment, 81; arguments 
against standardization of, 88; arrangement of, in elementary 
schools, 94 ; equipment for visual instruction in, 94 ; size of, in 
senior high schools, 139-140; in vocational schools, 172; sizes 
of, for best conditions for lighting, hearing, and vision, 208, 557, 
559; open-air, 211, 212; illustrations showing open-air, and 
plans of, 212-214; regarded as fundamental unit of school 
organization, 253 ; size and plan of, for elementary schools, 253- 
260 ; size of furniture for^ 260 ; size and plan of high school, 260- 
263 ; natural lighting of, 263-267 ; blackboard material and 
specifications, 268-271 ; value of architect's work in construc- 
tion of, 271 ; material for and construction of floors, 272 ; interior 
mill work or trim, 272-273 ; doors of, 273-274; transoms, 274; 
plaster, canvas, and painting, 274-275; floor treatment, 275- 
276; location of air registers in, 276-277; Venetian blinds for 
window shades of , 277-278; the library, 294-295 ; in commercial 
department, 410; telephone for, 557. 

Clawson Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 89-93 ; principal's 
office, 247; classroom in, 270; kindergarten in, 279-281; 
kindergarten porch, 282 ; appointments for musical instruction 
at, 342 ; manual-training room, 461; domestic science room, 
491 ; plumbing installation, 543, 544, 546, 548. 

Cleanliness, planning school buildings for, 88. 



GENERAL INDEX 



7i5 



Cleveland, Ohio, Addison School, 638, 639, 640; Almira School, 
641, 642, 643, 644; Empire School, 645, 646, 647, 648. 

Cleveland School, Newark, N. J., kindergarten, 290. 

Clinics, general school, 213, 216-217; dental, 216, 217; eye, 217. 

Clinton, Mass., High School, survey of, referred to, 148 ; recom- 
mendations made in connection with, 150-151, 153. 

Clock, electric program, for schools, 555-556. 

Clothing unit, home economics department, 470, 501-512. 

Clubrooms in intermediate schools, 8. 

Code of lighting school buildings, 559-568. 

Cold-storage room, school cafeteria, 520. 

Coleman, S. E., aluminum fume hood of, 377. 

Color, harmony of lines, texture, and, in plant composition, 63. 

Color schemes for classrooms, 275. 

Commercial department of schools, location of, 21, 399; require- 
ments for, in high elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre- 
vocational school, 72; in high school, 73, 397-410; estimated 
cost of equipment, 81; functions of, and relation to school in 
general, 397; detailed description, 399-410. 

Commercial geography, study of, 409. 

Commercial studies, planning of rooms for, 22. 

Community cottage connected with neighborhood type of junior 
high school, in. 

Community room, housekeeping unit, home economics department, 
499. 

Community type of junior high school, 111-112. 

Community use, of schools, 8, 320; of school playgrounds, n; 
planning of school buildings for, 20 ; location of school assembly 
halls with view to, 95 ; planning neighborhood type of junior 
high school for, 111-112; of school play yard, 236; of science 
department, 350; and practical work in applied science, 385. 

Competitions, entrance of architects into, 23- 

Composite high school, 128. 

Composition, attention to, in planting, 63-64. 

Comprehensive type of high school, arguments favoring, 1 27-131. 

Concrete work in school construction, 32. 

Conservatory, 394 ; for biological study, 396. 

Construction, types of, for school buildings, 76-77. 

Continuation classes, 20; planning of school building for, 21; 
in advertising and salesmanship, 402 ; in bookkeeping, 405 ; 
spectacular growth of idea, 416 ; use of library by pupils of, 293. 

Continuation principal, office of, in high school, 251. 

Cooking department, high school, requirements for, 74; electric 
service for, 552. 

Cooking unit, home economics department, 470; arrangement, 
equipment, and general description, 472-490. 

Cooley, Anna M., article on Domestic Art by, cited, 507. 

Cooper, Frank Irving, chapter by, on standards of schoolhouse 
planning, 569-574. 

Corrective gymnastics, included under physical education, 125; 
room for, in gymnasium, 234. 

Corrective period in physical education, 222. 

Correlation of departments in school planning, 21. 

Corridors of school buildings, 305-309. 

Cosmopolitan type, of junior high school, 112 ; of high school, 128. 

Cost of school buildings, 70 ff . ; methods of computing, 75-76; 
of ventilation, 526. 

Course of study, arrangement of elementary school dependent on, 
95-96; of junior high school, 114; of senior high school, as 
affecting accommodations, 138. 

Courts, size of, 8. 

Court surface for playground, 10. 

Cox, E. Morris, on organization of elementary school as affecting 
buildings, 85-96; on organization of the intermediate or junior 
high school as affecting buildings, 111-114. 

Crippled soldiers, technical education for, 384. 

Crocker Field, Fitchburg, Mass., chart for administration of, 15; 
photographs of, 16, 17 ; field house in, 16. 

Crowder, General, quoted on need of physical education, 218. 



Crystal School Dist. Calif., Grammar School, 602, 603. 

Cubic contents, computing cost of school buildings by, 76. 

Current supply for science department, 354-355. 

Curriculum, effectiveness of organization of, in comprehensive 

high schools, 131 ; place of physical education in, 225. 
Curtis, Henry S., opinion of, on size of school sites, 6. 8. 

Dancing, provisions for, in school playgrounds, 8, 9. 

Dark room, connected with physics laboratory, 363-364 ; for 
drawing courses, 421-422. 

Dark-room picture projection, science department, 353-356. 

David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo., 
174; account of, 174-175; buildings, equipment, and courses, 
175- 
Day schools, teaching of home economics in, 199, 200. 

Deafeners, floor, for classrooms, 272. 

Deans of girls and of boys, offices of, in high school, 251. 

Demonstration room, school shops, 427. 

Dental clinic: Forsyth, Boston, Mass., 216; University of Cali- 
fornia, Berkeley, Calif., 216. 

Departmental work for special type of pupils, 4. 

Department heads, offices for, in large high schools, 252 ; of com- 
mercial department, 399. 

Departments of school, correlation of, 21. 

Desks, hygienic requirements for, 208-209; sizes for, 260; for 
school library, 300, 303, 304 ; bookkeeping, 404 ; typewriter, 405. 

Dietetics, domestic chemistry and, 384 n. 

Dietetics laboratory of cooking unit, home economics department, 
475, 477- 

Dining-room, domestic science department, 491-493; of school 
cafeteria, 520-522. 

Directed study, defined, 140. 

Dish-washing devices, for school kitchens, 488 ; for school cafeteria, 



5i< 



5i< 



Doctor, school, 212, 217. 

Domestic arts department, 469, 552. 

Domestic chemistry, study of, 384. 

Domestic science. See Home economics. 

Doors, of classrooms, 273-274; of school library, 296 ; opening into 
corridors, 309 ; at entrances, 318-319; between rooms of music 
department, 349. 

Downer's Grove, 111., kindergarten at, 288, 289. 

Dramatic activities in physical education, 222-223. 

Drawing, need for general instruction in principles of, 411. 

Drawing department, location of, 21; planning of, 22; require- 
ments for, in high elementary school, 71; in high school, 74, 
412, 415, 420-422 ; in elementary school, 88, 412 ; in industrial 
type of junior high school, in; connected with vocational 
industrial shop, 172; chapter on the, 411-423 ; freehand, 416- 
419; mechanical, 419-420. 

Dressing rooms, in school buildings, 14; in gymnasium, 226. See 
Wardrobe. 

Dressing, floor, for classrooms, 276. 

Dresslar, F. B., cited concerning chalk-rails, 271. 

Dressmaking, teaching of, 501-509. 

Drinking fountains, sanitary, 210, 211; number of, 210-211. 

Dunwoody, William Hood, establishment of Industrial Institute 
by, 178. 

Dunwoody Industrial Institute. See William Hood Dunwoody 
Industrial Institute. 

Duplication of departments in schools, waste in, 2, 4. 

Durant Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 604, 605, 606. 

Dust, as a factor in aerial infections, 207. 

Economy, effect of, on school architecture, 24 ; distinguished from 

cheapness in building, 29, 31. 
Edison Junior High School, Berkeley, Calif., 124, 125. 
Education, devotion of American people to, and effects on school 

architecture, 18 ; aims of general, and of vocational, contrasted, 

157. See Vocational education. 



7x6 



GENERAL INDEX 



Educational grades, classification of, in estimating cost of school 
buildings, 78. 

Edward Lee McLean High School, Greenfield, Ohio, gymnasium 

• of, 230; main entrance vestibule, 317. 

Edward S. Bragg School, Fond du Lac, Wis., 100, 101 ; assembly 
hall gymnasium, 337. 

Electrical appliances, in kitchen of home economics department, 
488 ; used in University of New Mexico, 493. 

Electrical generating system for high schools, 75. 

Electrical installations in school buildings, 77-79, 550-568. 

Electrical shop, school, 74, 449, 451 ; construction of, and equip- 
ment, 168, 451. 

Electricity, direct and alternating current, courses in and labora- 
tory for, 364, 368-369. 

Electric service, kinds of, for schools, 550. 

Electric wiring for lecture room, science department, 354. 

Elementary schools, location of, 2, 3 ; avoiding duplication of de- 
partments in intermediate schools and, 2, 4 ; size of grounds for, 
6; play areas and equipment for, 8 ; photographs of, 19, 21, 25, 
'27-29, 32-34, 36, 86, 89, 92-93, 96, 98-100, 102-106, 212-213; 
floor plans of , 22-24,30,35,38-40,86-87,90-91,94-97, 107, no; 
planning and architecture of, 23 ; special desirability of pleasing ' 
architecture for, 27; requirements for buildings for, 70-71; 
classification of, in estimating cost of school buildings, 78 ; costs 
for construction of, and installation of heating, ventilating, and 
electrical systems, 78 ; organization of, as affecting buildings, 
85 ff. ; size and location of site, 85; general arrangement of 
building, 85-88 ; planning for cleanliness, 88 ; matter of height, 
88 ; arguments against standardization of classrooms, 88 ; 
special rooms in, 88, 93 ; complete equipment of, 93 ; facilities for 
physical education and health and sanitation, 93-94 ; arrange- 
ment of classrooms, 94 ; equipment for visual instruction, 94 ; 
assembly hall, office, and library in, 95 ; relation between course 
of study and arrangement of, 95-96; provisions for manual- 
training shops in, 159; home-making departments of, 200; 
best sizes for classrooms, 208; place of physical education in 
curriculum of, 225; equipment of play yard of, 237-238, 241 ; 
administrative offices in small, 243-245 ; administrative offices 
in large, 245-248; age of pupils in, 260; blackboard data for, 
271 ; size of library for, 293 ; corridors in, 305, 307 ; assembly 
hall in, 320-321 ; music department of, 342; drawing depart- 
ment in, 412 ; equipment of, for instruction in home economics, 
470. 

Elko, Nevada: Elko County High School, 653, 654, 655. 

Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., plan of site for, 12, 14-15 ; views 
of, 25, 27, 28; layout of grounds of, 26, 234; kindergarten porch 
of, 236 ; apparatus in play yard of, 237-238, 241 ; windows in, 
273- 

Empire School, Cleveland, Ohio, 645, 646, 647, 648. 

Employers, cooperation of, in work of vocational schools, 175. 

Enclosures for stairways, 3ii-3i2'. 

Engines. See Steam and gas engines. 

Entrances to stairs and corridors, 318-319. 

Equipment, of school buildings, 80-81 ; importance of saving 
sufficient funds for, 93 ; of science laboratories in junior high 
schools, 112; of office in junior high school,, 113; of different 
• rooms of high school, 149 ; problem of, for vocational schools, 
161-162; of typical shops for unit trade courses, 164-172; of 
machine shop, 166-167 ; of typical vocational schools, 174, 175, 
176, 177, 178, 180-181, 182, 183, 189; of girls' industrial schools, 
191 ; for agriculture instruction, 195-197 ; of home economics 
schools, 199, 200, 202, 470; of gymnasium, 229, 233-234; of 
play yard, 236-237, 241-242 ; of kindergarten, 281 ; of high 
school library, 297-298 ; of music department, 348 ; of science 
department, 351; of physics laboratory, 361-363; of school 
bank, 401 ; of ■ bookkeeping department, 404-405 ; filing, in 
commercial department, 409; freehand drawing, 416-419 ; of 
school shops, 430-463, 467; of unit kitchen, 487-488 ; care of 
domestic science, 490 ; of serving unit, 490, 493-494 ; for teach- 



ing laundering, 496-498 ; of clothing unit, 502 ; trade-sewing, 

507, 509; of kitchen of cafeteria, 515. 
Evanston, 111., Oakton School District, 76, 102, 103; assembly 

hall, Lincolnwood School, 338. 
Evening schools, 158; accommodations for, 160; for vocational 

education, 172-173 ; home economics taught in, 199. 
Ewing, William F., chapter by, on administrative offices in public 

school buildings, 243-252. 
Excavation work in school construction, 32. 
Exercise floors in gymnasium, 226. 

Exhibition room, industrial arts department, 74, 463, 465. . 
Exhibits, commercial, for students of commercial geography, 409- 

410. 
Exits, from stairs and corridors, 318 ; from assembly halls, 332. 
Exotic plants in school grounds, 66. 
Exterior of schools,, importance of attention to composition of, 

24-28. 
Eye clinics in schools, 217. 
Eye-strain, caused by glossy surfaces, 564-565. 
Eye-strain-preventive desks, 208, 209. 

Factories, avoiding locating school sites near, 6, 9 ; use of, for 
industrial school purposes, 160; as temporary quarters for vo- 
cational schools, 172. 

Factory planning and school planning compared, 20. 

Factory type of industrial school, construction of, 162-163. 

Fanning, David, legacy of, to Worcester Girls' Trade School, 193. 

Fans, exhaust, in school buildings, 540. 

Farm accounting, courses in, 403-404. 

Farming. See Agriculture. 

Farms, school, 396. 

Federal government, promotion of vocational education by, 159. 

Federal supervision of school-building plans, proposed, 29. 

Fences, for school playgrounds, n ; border of planting for, 69. 

Fernwood Elementary School, Portland, Ore., 619, 620, 621. 

Field house, photograph of, 16 ; for school play yard, 237. 

Filing system commercial department, 399, 401 ; equipment, 409. 

Filters, air, 524-525. 

Fire-alarm system in schools, 556. 

Fire doors, construction of, 309. 

Fire-engine houses, location of schools relative to, 6. 

Fire escapes on school buildings, 319. 

Fire hazards, location of schools and, 6. 

Fire hose, 548-549. 

Fireless cookers for school kitchens, 488. 

Fireproofing of school libraries, 304. 

Fire protection in schools, 547-548. 

First-aid dispensary in connection with playgrounds, 14. 

Fisk, Eugene Lyman, quoted on need of physical education, 
218. 

Fitchburg, Mass., Crocker Field at, 15, 16, 17. 

Flexibility, desirability of, in high school building, 138 ; quality of, 
necessary in construction of trade schools, 163, 164 ; of plan for 
buildings of Wentworth Institute, 184-185. 

Floor drains of schools, 545. 

Floor plans, of schools and shops, 22-24, 30, 35, 38-40, 44-45, 56- 
60, 86-87, 90-91, 94-95, 101, 107, 115-118, 121-123, 125, 129- 
131, 136-137, 143-146, I53-IS6, 173-174, 177, 179-181, 183- 
187, 189-192, 194, 196, 197-199, 214, 215, 244, 246, 280, 283, 
288, 426, 428, 432, 435, 438, 440, 443, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457 ; 
459,464,466; of open-air classrooms, 214-215; of gymnasiums, 
223, 224; of administrative offices, 244, 246, 249, 250; of class- 
rooms, 254-259, 261-262, 264-267, 269; of libraries, 293, 295. 
299, 300; of stairs, 310, 314; of assembly halls, 321, 343-345 ; 
for seating orchestra, 343-345 ; of music department, 347 ; of 
science departments, 355, 360, 366, 369, 372, 376, 386, 387, 389. 
392; of commercial department, 398, 400, 408-410; of drawing 
department, 413, 414, 418, 420 ; of home economics department 
471-474, 476, 478, 480, 485, 486, 489, 503, 508, 511 ; of cafeteria. 



GENERAL INDEX 



717 



514, 515; of plumbing system, 546; of electrical installation, 

SSi, 567. 
Floors, material for and construction of, 272 ; oiling of, 275-276; 

dressings for, 276 ; of libraries, 296; of corridors, 309. 
Floor space, for general school buildings and for industrial schools, 

159; in trade schools, 164; for home economics department, 

200; in elementary classrooms, 255 ; division of, 571-572. 
Flowers in school grounds, 64; proper use of, 67, 69. 
Fond du Lac, Wis., Edward S. Bragg School at, 100, 101, 337. 
Foods, study of chemistry of, 384. 
Foreign and domestic trade, course in, 409. 

Foreign-born residents, special type of education for children of, 4. 
Forges, types of, 444. 
Forge shop, industrial arts department of high school, 74, 439-446 ; 

estimated cost of equipment, 81. 
Formal activities in physical education, 223. 
Forsyth Dental Clinic, Boston, Mass., 216. 
Foundry,- high school, 74, 424-425; construction and equipment, 

436-439. 
Francis Nicholls School, New Orleans, La., 191. 
Francis W. Parker Elementary School, San Diego, Calif., open-air 

classroom at, 213; kindergarten, 284, 594, 595, 596. 
Franklin High School, Portland, Ore., heating and ventilating 

plant, 537, 538; toilet rooms, 547. 
Freehand drawing department, 412 ; 416; equipment for, 416-419. 
Fremont School, Sacramento, Calif., open-air kindergarten, 290. 
Fresno, Calif., Longfellow School, grounds of, 238. 
Furnaces, heating by, 528-531. 
Furniture, purchase of, for schools, 80 ; size of, in classrooms, 260 ; 

for dining-room of domestic-science department, 492-493. 
Future, school of the, 21-24, 573- 

Games, among activities of physical education, 222-223 I special 

room for, in gymnasium, 234-235 ; taught in kindergarten, 282. 
Gardens, protection of, in school grounds, 9 ; experimental, for 

high schools, 9. 
Gary schools, lunch room experiment in, 488. 
Gary system, distinctive curriculum and conduct of studies under, 

4». 
Gates Institute. See Jane Hayes Gates Institute. 
General education and vocational education, 157-159. 
General industrial school, the, 161-162. 
General science and biological laboratories, 385-396. 
Geography, commercial, 409. 
Geometrical drawing rooms, 419. 
German system of physical education, 219. 
Gilkey, Howard, on landscape development of school grounds, 61- 

69. 
Girls, trade and industrial schools for, 190-195; home economics 

school for, 199-203 ; instruction in chemistry for, 384. 
Girls' gymnasium, apparatus for, 233. 
Girls' Trade School, Worcester, Mass., 193-194, 200. 
Girls' Vocational School, Newark, N. J., 200. 
Girls' yard, play area and equipment for, in elementary school, 8, 

237-238; in junior high school, 8; separation of, from boys' 

division, 9. 
Glasgow School, St. Louis, Mo., 104. 
Glass, thickness and quality of, in school construction, 32 ; amount 

of area of, for classroom, 264, 266 ; for blackboards, 268 ; use 

of, in classroom doors, 274. 
Glendora, Calif., Grammar School No. 2, 108, 109, no, 607, 608. 
Gravity furnace systems, 528-531. 
Gravity steam systems, 531. 
Greenfield, Ohio, views of Edward Lee McLean High School, 230, 

317, 649, 650, 651, 652. 
Grinding room, equipment of, 431, 434. 
Grounds. See School grounds. 

Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Mo., 141-146; audi- 
torium, 331, 332 ; music room, 349 ; chemistry laboratory, 382 ; 



physics laboratory, 361 ; conservatory, 394; typing room, 407 ; 
drawing rooms, 421, 422 ; cooking-room, 494; laundry labora- 
tory, 505; cafeteria, 516. 

Guilbert, E> F., architect, influence of work of, 18. 

Guilford School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 624, 625, 626. 

Gulick, Luther H., Public School Athletic League organized by, 
219. 

Gulick and Ayres, Medical Inspection of Schools, cited, 217. 

Gymnasium, separate building for, of high school, 9 ; locating the, 
21 ; estimated cost of, and of equipment, 80, 81 ; in junior high 
school, 113; time-allotment for physical training in, in high 
schools, 147-148 ; combination of assembly hall and, 149 ; ar- 
rangement and equipment of indoor, 225-236 ; outdoor or semi- 
outdoor, 236-242. 

Gymnasium, plans of, 223, 224; Pontiac High School, Mich., 227 ; 
Carter H. Harrison Technical High School, Chicago.; 111., 228, 
231; Junior High School, Trenton, N. J., 229; Edward Lee 
McLean High School, Greenfield, Ohio, 230. 

Gymnasium apparatus, space for, in elementary school play area, 
8 ; in junior high school, 8. 

Gymnasium frames, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 

Gymnasium requirements, high elementary school, 71 ; in junior 
high and pre- vocational school, 72 ; high school, 73. 

Gymnastics and physical education, 221-225. 

Haldane, Report by, cited, 205. 

Hall, Mary E., writings on school library by, 291. 

Halls in elementary school, 85. 

Hamilton, Ohio, High School, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685. 

Handball courts, for elementary school, 8 ; for junior high school, 
8; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 

Hand-rails in stairways, 312-313. 

Hardware, quality of, in school construction, 32. 

Harmony in planting, 63-64. 

Health, measures for safeguarding, 212-213, 216-217. 

Health and sanitation, equipment relative to, in elementary 
schools, 93-94. 

Health education, effectiveness of comprehensive high school for, 
129-130. 

Heating of school buildings, 207-208 ; use of stoves, 527-528 ; 
by furnaces, 528-531 ; steam systems, 53 1 ; hot-water systems, 
S3 1- 535 ; description of plant for ventilating and, 535-540. 

Heating plant, location of, 21. 

Heating systems, types of, 77; calculating cost of, 78-79. 

Heavy gymnastics in physical education, 222. 

Height of elementary school buildings, 88. 

Henry O. Shepard School, Chicago, 111., 585, 586. 

Hetherington, Clark W., California State Manual of Physical 
Education by, quoted, 221-222; classification of physical 
education activities by, 222-225. 

High schools, location of, 2, 3 ; size of sites, 2 ; choice of sites for, 9 ; 
location of building, 9-10; photographs of, 19, 41-55, 133-135, 
141-142, 152; of the future, 23; influence exerted on student 
by architecture of, 27-28; floor plans of, 44-45, 56-60, 136-137, 
143-146, 153-156; requirements for buildings for, 72-75; 
classification of, in estimating cost of school buildings, 78; 
costs for construction of, and installation of heating, ventilat- 
ing, and electrical systems, 78 ; estimated cost of building and 
equipment, 80-81 ; measuring static capacity of, 82 ; organiza- 
tion and administration of, as affecting buildings, 126 ff. ; com- 
prehensive vs. special-type, 127-131; determination of contrib- 
uting area for, 131-132; advantages of union, 132; internal 
organization of, as affecting accommodations, 138-148 ; estimate 
and tabulation of accommodations needed in, 148-150; voca- 
tional education in, 158; floor space given to manual-training 
shops in, 159; vocational home economics department in, 200- 
202 ; best sizes for classrooms, 208 ; place of physical education 
in curriculum of, 225; playground equipment for, 242; ad- 
ministrative offices in, 248-252; age of pupils in, 260; class- 



7 i8 



GENERAL INDEX 



rooms in, 260-263 ; blackboard data for, 271 ; library facilities 
for, 294; corridors in, 307 ; assembly hall for, 321, 323 ; music 
department of, 346; place of science in curriculum of, 351; 
commercial departments of, 397-410 ; department of drawing in, 
412, 415; shops in industrial department, 424-425; cafeteria 
for, 513-522. , 

Hockey field, at Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., 241. 

Hodgdon, D. R., quoted on teaching of science, 3S5. 

Home economics, schools for instruction in, 158-159, 199-200; 
standards in selection and equipment of rooms for instruction in, 
202-263 ; development of education in, 468 ; new meaning 
given to, 469 ; change in teaching of, 469-470 ; equipment of 
elementary and secondary schools for instruction in, 470 ; rooms 
for department of, 470, 472; the serving unit, 470, 490-494; 
the cooking unit, 472-490; the laundry unit, 494-498; the 
housekeeping and home nursing unit, 498-501 ; the clothing 
unit, 501-512. 

Home economics department, requirements for, in high school, 74 ; 
estimated cost of building and of equipment, 80, 81 ; chapter on, 
468-512. 

Home-making education, 199 ; rooms for, in high schools, 74 ; 
provision for, of comprehensive high school, 129-130; separate 
schools for, 200. 

Home nursing, education in, 498. 

Hospital diet kitchen equipment, 490. 

Hospitals, location of schools relative to, 6. 

Hot-water circulation in school buildings, 547. 

Hot-water heating systems, 531-535. 

Household accounts, courses in, 403-404. 

Household arts, instruction in, for pupils who would ordinarily 
leave school after sixth grade, 4. 

Household arts department, location of, 21; planning of, 22; 
requirements for, in elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and 
p re-vocational school, 72. 

Household chemistry, study of, 384. 

Housekeeping and home nursing unit, home economics depart- 
ment, 470, 498-501. 

House painting and decorating, rooms for instruction in, and equip- 
ment, 169-170. 

Humidity, factor of, in connection with ventilation, 205, 525-526. 

Hunting games, among physical activities, 223. 

Hussander, A. F., influence of work of, 18; seating plan of class- 
rooms by, 255, 258. 

Hutchinson Central High School, Buffalo, N. Y., library of, 298, 
299 ; museum cases at, 304. 

Hydraulics, courses in, 364 ; laboratory .for, 365 ; experiments in, 
365, 367- 

Hygiene of schools, 204-217. 

Hygiene courses, laboratory accommodations for, 390-391. 

Illinois, union high schools in, 132. 

Illuminating Engineering Society, code of lighting school buildings, 

quoted, 557, 559-568. 
Imperial Valley, Calif., Westmoreland School grounds, 68. 
Inclines, impracticable for school buildings, 318. 
Incubators, electric, in general science laboratory, 388. 
Indenturing of students, at Williamson School, 177. 
Indigenous plants in school grounds, 64, 66. 
Individual unit kitchen desk, home economics department, 475. 
Indoor baseball grounds, 9. 

Indoor gymnasium, arrangement and equipment of, 225-236. 
Industrial arts, instruction in, for pupils who would otherwise leave 

school after sixth grade, 4. 
Industrial arts department, planning of, 22; requirements for, in 

junior high and pre- vocational school, 72; high school, 74; 

chapter on, 424-467. 
Industrial shops, high school, location of, 9. 
Industrial schools, 158; buildings for, 159-160; serious need 

for buildings, 160; general, 161-162 ; new buildings for, and 



their equipment, 162-190; for girls, 190-195. See Vocational 
schools. 

Industrial type of junior high school, building for, in. 

Inspection, of school buildings, 31-33 ; of plumbing work, 544. 

Instruction, department of, in low elementary school, 71; re- 
quirements for department of, in low and in high elementary 
school, 71; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 72; in 
high school, 73. 

Instructional period in physical education, 221-222. 

Instruments for mechanical drawing course, 411. 

Intermediate schools. See Junior high schools. 

Internal organization of high school as affecting accommodations, 
138-148. _ 

Ittner, William B., influence of work of, 18 ; report by, concerning 
costs, quoted, 83-84. 

Jacketed stoves, use of, for heating, 527-528. 

Jails, avoiding locating schools near, 6. 

Jane Hayes Gates Institute, Kansas City, Mo., 190, 194-195; 
home-making department of, 200. 

Janitor's quarters, in small elementary school, 245 ; in large ele- 
mentary school, 247. 

Jefferson School, Oakland, Calif., 634, 635, 636. 

Job records of office-training students, 403. 

John Muir School, Berkeley, Calif., landscape plan, 64. 

Johnson, George E., work of, for playground movement, 219. 

Jordan, Arthur L., chapter by, on physics and chemistry, 350. 

Jumping-pit, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 15, 238. 

Junior chambers of commerce, 402. 

Junior high schools, location of, 2,3; avoiding duplication of de- 
partments in elementary schools and, 2, 4 ; use of, as community 
centers, 8 ; . play areas and equipment for, 8 ; planning and 
architecture of, 23; requirements for buildings for, 71-72; or- 
ganization of, as affecting buildings, in ff. ; academic, industrial, 
neighborhood or community, and cosmopolitan types of, 111- 
112; photographs of, 112-114, 119-120, 124; floor plans of, 
115, 116-118, 121-123, 125, 128-131; cosmopolitan type of, 
112; science laboratories in, 112; library in, 112, 293-294; 
office equipment, 113; teachers' rooms, auditorium, and gym- 
nasium, 113-114; course of study, as bearing upon building 
plans, 114; reasons for introduction of, 126-127 ; arguments in 
favor of comprehensive type of, 127-131 ; determination of con- 
tributing area for, 133 ; best sizes for classrooms, 208 ; place of 
physical education in curriculum of, 225; playground equip- 
ment for, 241-242 ; administrative offices in, 248-249 ; age of 
pupils in, 260; assembly hall for, 321, 323 ; music department 
of, 342, 346; place of science department relative to, 351; 
drawing department in, 41 2 ; shops for, 465, 467 ; plan of house- 
hold art suite for, 511. 

Kansas City, Mo., account of Lathrop School in, 177-178; Jane 
Hayes Gates Institute in, 190, 194-195. 

Kenilworth, 111., New Trier Township High School, 15, 41 ; cafe- 
teria, 517, 659, 660, 661, 662. 

Keys for gymnasium lockers, 226. 

Kidder, Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book, quoted, and cited, 
313, 325- 

Kimball, Heating and Ventilating of High Schools, quoted, 207. 

Kindergartens, location of, 88 ; standardization of rooms, 95 ; age 
of pupils in, 260; blackboard data for, 271 ; planning of room 
for, 279; exposure and size, 279-281 ; plans of rooms, 280, 283, 
288; furnishings for, 281 ; subjects taught, 281-282 ; plans and 
interior views, 280, 281, 284-287, 289-290. 

Kingsburg, Calif., Union High School landscape plan, 67. 

Kingsley, Clarence D., on organization and administration of senior 
high schools as affecting buildings, 126-153. 

Kinne, Helen, Equipment for Teaching Domestic Science by, cited, 
487. 

Kirkwood, Mo., Grammar School, 106, 107. 



GENERAL INDEX 



719 



Kitchen, in home economics department, 200-201, 475; location 

and size of, 203 ; of cafeteria for high school, 513-519. 
Kitchen laboratory in home-making departments of schools, 200. 

Laboratories, requirements for high school, 73-74 ; science, in 
junior high schools, 112; size of, for senior high schools, 139; 
use of rooms in, for recitations, 149, 197 ; science, in connection 
with vocational industrial shop, 172 ; domestic science, at Jane 
Hayes Gates Institute, 194; agricultural, 198; kitchen, in 
home-making departments of schools, 200; special, for courses 
in applied physics, 364-370; general science and biological, 
385-396 ; commercial departments as educational experimental, 
397- 

Laboratory, the physics, 361; chemistry, 372-373; dietetics, 
475, 477 ; laundry, 496-498, 503, 504. 

Laboratory breakage fund, science department, 356-357. 

Laboratory desk type of arrangement of cooking unit, home eco- 
nomics department, 472-473. 

Laclede Elementary School, St. Louis, Mo., 86, 87; kindergarten, 
287. 

Lafayette School, Newark, N. J., 32, ^^. 

Lafayette Bloom School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 622, 623. 

Landings of stairs, 312. 

Landscape architecture, value of, 69. 

Landscape designer, cooperation of physical director with architect 
and, in planning school grounds, 9. 

Landscape development of school grounds, 61-69; estimated cost 
of, 80, 81. 

Lanterns for lecture room of science department, 353-354. 

Lantern slides for science department, 355. 

Lathrop School of Mechanical Trades, Kansas City, Mo., history 
and location of, 177; buildings of, 177-178 ; equipment, courses, 
and other data, 178. 

Laundering, teaching of, 494-496. 

Laundry equipment in home economics department of vocational 
school, 202. 

Laundry unit, home economics department, 470, 494-498. 

Lavatories in school buildings, 210. 

Lawn as surface of playground, 10. 

Lawrence, Mass., assembly hall of Oliver School in, 339. 

Lecture room, science department, 353-356; physics, 357-361; 
chemistry, 372 ; for courses in applied physics, 372 ; in drawing 
department, 420. 

Legge, Robert T., chapter by, on the hygiene of schools, 204-217. 

Legislation concerning school buildings, suggested, 29. 

Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary School, Palo Alto, 
Calif., 96-99 ; open-air classroom at, 212. 

Library, location of, 21, 292-293 ; in high elementary school, 71 ; 
requirements for high school, 73 ; estimated cost of equipment, 
81 ; in elementary school, 95 ; in junior high school, 112; articu- 
lation of study halls with, in high schools, 147 ; in large ele- 
mentary school, 247 ; importance of, in relation to whole school 
plant, 291-292 ; course in the use of, recommended, 292 ; ques- 
tion of size, 293-295 ; interior construction, 295-296 ; ventila- 
tion and lighting, 296 ; finish and equipment, 297-304 ; fire- 
proofing, 304; of music department, 349; of science depart- 
ment, 352 ; of drawing department, 420, 423. 

Lighting, of factory type of industrial school, 162-163 5 0I home 
economics departments, 203 ; of schoolrooms in general, 208 ; 
of gymnasium, 229; of classrooms, 263-267; of school library, 
296; of corridors, 307; of stairways, 315; of assembly hall, 
331-332 ; of physics lecture room, 359, 361 ; of physical labora- 
tory, 361 ; of laboratories used for evening work, 384 ; of book- 
keeping rooms, 405 ; of drawing rooms, 415, 416, 423 ; of school 
shops, 427; of exhibit room, 463 ; of laundry room, home eco- 
nomics department, 496; resume of requirements in school 
lighting, 557, 559. 

Lighting installation, design of, 565-567. 

Lincoln Elementary School, Toledo, Ohio, 285, 590, 591, 592, 593. 



Lincoln High School, Portland, Ore., 152-156; trade-sewing 

room, 512. 
Lincolnwood School, Evanston, 111., Assembly Hall, 338. 
Lindblom High School, Chicago, 111., 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709. 
Linoleum for classroom floors, 276. 
Literature, taught in kindergarten, 281. 
Little Rock, Ark., Junior High School, 1 19-123. 
Location of school buildings, 6, 9. 
Locker rooms, school shops, 427. 

Lockers, in gymnasium, 225-226; in corridor walls, 308. 
Lockwood Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 580, 581, 582. 
Logan County Industrial Arts High School, Sterling, Colo., 197, 

198. 
Longfellow School, Fresno, Calif., grounds of, 238. 
Los Angeles, Calif., high school landscape plan, 65; high school 

library regulations in, 292 ; Lincoln High School, trade-sewing 

room, 512. 
Lunches for open-air classes, 21 1-2 12. 
Lunch rooms, in home economics work, 202 ; for teachers, 248 ; 

education in management of, 488. 
Lux School, San Francisco, Calif., teachers' dining-room, 499, 500; 

laundry room, 502 ; household arts classroom, 506 ; teachers' 

rest room, 507 ; household arts drawing room, 509. 

McChesney Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 582, 583, 584. 

McCormick Open Air School, Chicago, 111., 211. 

McKinley School, San Leandro, Calif., 577, 578. 

Machines, for direct and alternating current electricity laboratory, 
368-369. 

Machine shop, in industrial arts department of high school, 74 ; 
estimated cost of equipment of, 81 ; construction and equipment 
of, 166-167, 434-436. 

Madison, Elizabeth, writings on school library by, 291. 

Manhattan Trade School, New"York City, description of, 191, 193. 

Manual training, requirements for department, in high elemen- 
tary school, 71 ; in kindergarten, 282. 

Masonry work in school construction, 32. 

Massachusetts, conditions in, as to high schools, 132; size of 
high school classes in, 140. 

Materials for school buildings, economy distinguished from cheap- 
ness in, 29, 31. 

Measurement of schoolhouse plan for standardization, rules for, 
57i- 

Mechanical department, in low elementary school, 70; in high 
elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 
7i- 

Mechanical drawing, in public school curriculum, 411, 412; high 
school department of, 412, 415; courses in, 419; geometrical 
and trade drawing rooms, 419-420. 

Mechanical plant, high school, requirements for, 73. 

Mechanics, courses in, 364; laboratory for, 365. 

Medical department, in low elementary school, 70; in high ele- 
mentary school, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational school, 
71 ; in high school, 73. 

Menagerie, of biological laboratory, 393, 395. 

Microscopes, in biological laboratory, 395-396. 

Millinery, teaching of, 501. 

Mill work for classroom interiors, 272. 

Milwaukee, buildings of Trade School for Boys in, 160; account 
of Boys' Technical High School in, 181-182 ; Public School of 
Trades for Girls in, 193. 

Modeste, Calif., high school grounds, 62; sewing-unit layout for 
high school. 508. 

Monrovia, Calif., Polytechnic High School, 673, 674, 675. 

Morgan, Agnes Fay, chapter by, on the home economics depart- 
ment, 468-512. 

Morrill Act, passage of, 468 n. 

Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., tennis courts at, 240; hockey 
field at, 241. 



720 



GENERAL INDEX 



Motive of American school architecture, 18. 

Mott School, Toledo, Ohio, 613, 614, 615, 616. 

Moving pictures, apparatus in auditorium of junior high school, 
113-114; screen for, in school assembly halls, 324; booths for, 
in assembly halls, 327, 328, 331 ; apparatus in science depart- 
ment, 353-356. 

Multiple uses, principle of, applied to rooms in high school, 149. 

Museum cases in school libraries, 298, 304. 

Music, taught in kindergarten, 281. 

Music department, 342-349 ; separate building for, in high school, 
9; requirements for, in high elementary school, 71 ; in junior 
high and pre- vocational school, 72; in senior high school, 74; 
estimated cost of equipment, 81. 

Music room, combination of, with auditorium, in elementary 
school, 88. 

Myers, Romaine W., chapter by, on electrical installation and 
illumination, 550-568. 

Naramore, Floyd A., suggestion by, for tacking strips, 271. 

Nash, Jay B., chapter by, on physical education, 218-242. 

National Education Association, recommendations of, on size of 
school sites, 6, 8. 

Nationalizing of immigrants, 22. See Americanization of for- 
eigners. 

Natural play activities in physical education, 222-223. 

Nature study, in kindergarten, 282. 

Neighborhood type of junior high school, 111-112. 

Newark, N. J., Lafayette School in, 32, a; South Side High 
School in, 133-137; Boys' Vocational School in, 188-190, 191, 
192; Girls' Vocational School in, 200; kindergarten of Cleve- 
land School, 290; assembly hall of South Side High School, 340 ; 
State Normal School, 599 ; Ridge School, 600, 601. 

New Bedford, Mass., building of industrial school in, 160; ac- 
count of Vocational School, 182-183. 

New Couch School, Portland, Ore., fan installation, 539, 540. 

New Orleans, La., Francis Nicholls School in, 191. 

New Trier Township High School, Kenilworth, 111., 15, 41 ; foun- 
dry, 439; cafeteria, 517, 659, 660, 661, 662. 

New York City, Manhattan Trade School in, 191, 193 ; investi- 
gation of ventilation question by Health Department of, 207 ; 
playground movement in, 219; elementary school floor plans 
in, 255, 259 ; Regis High School, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696. 

New York State, law of, in regard to physical education, 220. 

Nolan, Thomas, editor of Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket 
Book, 313. 

Northampton, Mass., Smith Agricultural School at, 196-197, 199. 

Nurses, school, 212, 216, 217. 

Oakland, Calif., layout of Emerson School site, 12 and 234 ; 14-15 ; 
views of Emerson School, 25-28; views of Claw;on Elementary 
School, 89-93 ; kindergarten porch, Emerson School, 236 ; ap- 
paratus in play yard of Emsrson School, 237-238, 241 ; Bushrod 
Playground, 239 ; Mo ^swood Park tennis courts, 240 ; track in 
Bushrod Playground, 241 ; hockey field, Mosswood Park, 241 ; 
classroom, Clawson School, 270; open windows, Emerson 
school, 273; kindergarten, Clawson School, 281; kindergarten 
porch, Clawson School, 282; theater-auditorium in, 329, 330; 
Clawson School manual-training room, 461 ; Clawson School 
domestic science room, 491 ; plumbing installation, Clawson 
School, 543, 544, 546, 548; Santa Fe Elementary School, 579, 
580; Lockwood Elementary School, 580, 581, 582 ; McChesney 
Elementary School, 582, 583, 584; Durant Elementary School, 
604, 605, 606; Claremont Elementary School, 632, 633 ; Jeffer- 
son School, 634, 635, 636. 

Oakland Technical High School, Oakland, Calif., group plan of, 
13, 15; views of, 42-49; description of administrative offices, 
249-250; use of library by pupils, 293 ; physical lecture room, 
356; physics laboratory, 362; chemistry lecture room, 377; 
chemistry laboratory, 378; bookkeeping department, 404; 



typing room, 406; freehand drawing room, 417; shops, 425, 

429, 433, 441, 460; cooking-room, 487; costume-designing 

classroom, 510. 
Oak Park School, Sacramento, Calif., 30, 31. 
Qakton School District 76, Evanston, 111., 102, 103. 
Odors, in relation to school hygiene, 205. 
Office, arrangement of library and, in elementary school, 95 ; 

music, in music department of high school, 349. 
Office equipment, junior high school, 113. 
Offices, in gymnasium, 225; administrative, in public school 

buildings, 243-252 ; of commercial department, 399; teachers', 

in commercial department, 407 ; of drawing department, 420 : 

of school shops, 427. 
Office training, in commercial department of high school, 402-403. 
Oiling of classroom floors, 275-276. 
Oil macadam surface for playground, 10-n. 
O'Leary, Iris Prouty, Cooking in the Vocational School, etc., by, 

cited, 487. 
Oliver School, Lawrence, Mass., assembly hall, 339. 
Open-air schools, 211-212; classrooms in, and plans of, 212-214; 

discussed, 527. 
Open type of plan in school architecture, 24. 
Orchestra, accommodations for, in assembly halls, 343, 344, 345, 

346. 
Organ, in assembly halls, 327 ; a valuable acquisition to any high 

school, 348. 
Ornamental embellishments in school architecture, infrequent use 

of, 18. 
Outdoor laboratory for study of biology, 396. 
Ovens, in cafeteria kitchen, 515. 
Overhead lighting for classrooms, 264. 
Ozonating air, ventilating by, 524. 

Packard, Frank L., architect, influence of work of, 18. 

Painting, inspection of, in school construction, 32 ; of classrooms, 

275 ; of corridors, 308-309 ; of assembly halls, 332-333. 
Painting and decorating, workshops for teaching, 169-170. 
Palo Alto, Calif., Leland Stanford Jr. University Elementary 

School in, 96-99, 212. 
Parkersburg, W. Va., school assembly hall, 341, 686, 687, 688, 689. 
Partitions, movable, in industrial schools, 163 ; for inclosing 

stairways, 31 1-3 12. 
Part-time schools, 158; accommodations for, 160; buildings for, 

172 ; home economics taught in, 199. 
Pattern-making shop, room for, and equipment, 1 71-172, 430-431. 
Pergola porch, open, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 15. 
Periods in high school day, relation of. to accommodations needed, 

148 ; length of, 148. 
Periods of leadership and instruction in physical education, 221- 

222. 
Perkins, Dwight H., architect, influence of work of, 18. 
Personal combative activities in physical education, 223. 
Physical director, collaboration of, in planning school grounds, 9. 
Physical education, for pupils who would ordinarily leave school 

after sixth grade, 4 ; facilities for, in elementary schools, 93 ; 

time-allotment for, in high schools, 147-148 ; need of, 218-219 ; 

history of, 219; rise of playground movement, 219; new era 

in, from 1914 to 1918, 219-220; State laws concerning, 220-221 ; 

definition and aims of, 221 ; periods of leadersh'p and instruction 

in, 221-222; phases of, 222-225; place of, in the curriculum, 

225; plant and equipment for, 225-237. 
Physical-training periods, classification and relationships between, 

221-222. 
Physics, provision for department of, 357-364; applied, 364-372. 

See Science department. 
Physics department, high school, requirements for, 74. 
Physiology, laboratory accommodations, 390-391. 
Picture moldings in school corridors, 309. 
Pictures, for physics lecture room, 359. 



GENERAL INDEX 



721 



Pittsburgh, Pa., playground movement in, 219; interior views 
of Schenley High School, 296, 297, 313, 315, 334, 383, 391, 492, 
501, 663, 664, 665. 

Placement bureau, commercial department of high school, 401. 

Planning of school buildings, 18, 20-21. 

Plans, for school sites, 1-2, 3 ; of playgrounds, 5, 242 ; of athletic 
fields, 7, 15 ; of school grounds, 12-14, 26, 37, 43, 62, 64-68, 97, 
no, 127-128, 178, 234, 238; of shops, 165-171, 198, 426, 428, 
432, 438, 440, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457, 459 ; of vocational home 
economics department, 201 ; of unit kitchens, 202 ; of eye- 
strain-preventive desks, 208, 209 ; of lockers in corridors, 308. 
See Floor plans. 

Planting on school grounds, relation of architecture and, 61, 63 ; 
border for fence, 69. 

Plastering, quality of, in school construction, 32; for classrooms, 
274. 

Play activities in physical education, 222-223. 

Playground movement, rise of, 219 ; a phase of physical education 
program, 225. 

Playgrounds, importance of, 1; plans of, 5, 242; of elementary 
schools, 8 ; of junior high schools, 8-9 ; of high schools, 10 
surfacing of, 10-11; fencing of, n; community use of, n 
toilet, dressing-room, and other accommodations for, n, 14 
location of accommodations, 21; for elementary schools, 85, 
96; photographs of, 239-241; for kindergartens, 279, 281. 

Playground supervisor, offices for, in schools, 245, 248. 

Playrooms in schools, an essential, 20; covered, 88. 

Play yard, equipment, plan, and size of, 236-237 ; views and 
plans of, 237, 239, 241, 242. 

Plumbing, room for instruction in, and equipment, 171 ; of school 
buildings, 209-211; special, for science department, 352-353; 
complexity of modern systems, 541 ; survey of building site and 
excavation work, 541-542 ; soil pipes, cesspools, septic tanks, 
and roof drains, 542-543 ; toilet facilities, materials, and under- 
ground pipes, 543-544 ; constant inspection to be maintained, 
544 ; union connections, valves, wall and floor plates, 544-545 ; 
water supply and water distribution, 545, 547 ; hot-water circu- 
lation, 547; fire protection system, 547-548; standpipe and 
fire-hose installation, 548-549 ; pipe covering and plumbing 
fixtures, 549. 

Plumbing shop, functions and equipment of, 453. 

Polytechnic High School, Monrovia, Calif., 673, 674, 675. 

Pontiac, Mich., High School, gymnasium of, 227, 656, 657, 
658. 

Portable schoolhouses, stoves used for heating, 527-528. 

Portland, Ore., Lincoln High School, 152-156; Benson Poly- 
technic High School, 434, 448, 449, 455, 458, 528, 529-536; 
Franklin High School, 537, 538, 547; New Couch School, 539, 
540; Fernwood Grammar School, 620, 621. 

Power food chopper, school cafeteria, 517. 

Power hammer, for school forge shop, 444 ; foundation for, 444, 
446. 

Power plants in industrial schools, 163. 

Practice house in vocational home economics department, 202. 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., laboratories, 367, 368, 370, 371, 
373- 

Pressure cookers for school kitchens, 488. 

Pre-vocational school, requirements for buildings for, 71-72. 

Primary grades, provision for schoolroom activities in, 95-96. 
See also Elementary school. 

Principal's offices, requirements for, 70, 71, 72; cost of equip- 
ment, 81; in small elementary schools, 244-245; in large ele- 
mentary schools, 246 ; in medium-sized high schools, 248. 

Principals' secretaries, 403. 

Printing, rooms for instruction in, and equipment, 75, 168-169, 
451-453, 467 ; high school course in, 425. 

Program systems, electric, for schools, 555. 

Projectoscope equipment in elementary schools, 94. 

Psychological tests, commercial department of high school, 401. 



Psychrometer, wet-bulb, for determining temperature and relative 

humidity of rooms, 205. 
Puente, Calif., Union High School plan, 66. 
Pullman Free School of Manual Training, 187 ; description of, 

187-188. 
Pupil, cost per, as method of computing cost of school buildings, 

75-76. 
Pupils, reach of, 271. 
Pupils' service department, in low elementary schools, 71; in 

high elementary schools, 71 ; in junior high and pre-vocational 

schools, 72 ; in high schools, 73. 

Quietness, an essential in assembly halls, 327. 

Radiators, recesses for, in school corridors, 309. 

Radio classes, 407. 

Railroad crossings, attention to, in planning for school sites, 2. 

Railroad tracks, avoidance of school sites along, 6. 

Ramps in school buildings, 318. 

Ranken School of Trades. See David Ranken Jr. School of Me- 
chanical Trades. 

Reach of pupils, data concerning, 271. 

Recitation rooms, size and number of, in high schools, 139 ; com- 
bination of laboratories and, 149, 197. 

Recreational facilities in elementary schools, 93. 

Reed, George E., chapter by, on heating and ventilating, 523-540 ; 
chapter by, on plumbing, 541-549. 

Reflectoscopes for lecture room, science department, 354. 

Refrigerators for cooking unit, home economics department, 484. 

Regis High School, New York City, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 
696. 

Registrar's office in high school, 72, 251. 

Related activities included under physical education, 223, 225. 

Requirements for schools, lists of, 70-75. 

Research, recent impetus given to, 21-22. 

Rest rooms in schools, 245, 246-247, 249. 

Rezin Orr Public School, Chicago, 111., 586, 587, 588, 589. 

Rhythm, taught in kindergarten, 281-282. 

Rhythmic activities in physical education, 223. 

Richardson, Anna E., account of vocational home economics 
schools by, 199-203. 

Risers of stairs, 313. 

Rochester, Minn., school library regulations at, 291-292. 

Rochester, N. Y., industrial school, building of, 160. 

Roof dampers, use of and necessity for, 540. 

Running track, in indoor gymnasium, 226. 

Rural communities, the 6-4-2 plan in, 127 ; union high schools for, 
132. 

Rural schools, farm bookkeeping in, 404. 

Sabine, Wallace C, work on architectural acoustics by, cited, 324, 
325- 

Sacramento, Calif., Oak Park School, 30, 31 ; kindergarten of 
Fremont School, 290. 

Safety welfare work in schools, 212-213, 216-217. 

St. Louis, Mo., Clark Elementary and Soldan High School, 19; 
Bryan Mullanphy Elementary School, 20-24, 285, 286; La- 
clede Elementary School, 86, 87, 287; Glasgow School, 104, 
Ashland School, 105 ; Grover Cleveland High School, 141-146, 
33*, 33 2 , 349, 352, 361, 394, 4°7, 421, 422, 494, 505, 516; de- 
scription of David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, 
174-175- 

Salesmanship, courses in, in commercial department of high school, 
402 ; general and specialty, 402. 

Sand box, in space for small children, elementary school, 8 ; in 
junior high school, 9; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 
15, 237, 238. 

San Diego, Calif., Francis W. Parker Elementary School, 213; 
kindergarten of Francis W. Parker School, 284; study-room 
library of high school, 298, 594, 595, 596. 



722 



GENERAL INDEX 



Sand table, in general science laboratory, 388. 

San Francisco, Calif., interior views of Lux School, 499, 500, 502, 
506, 507, 509. 

Sanitary installations in school buildings, 77. 

Sanitation, of school sites, 6; laboratory accommodations for 
courses in, 390-391. 

San Leandro, Calif., McKinley School, 577, 578; Washington 
School, 578. 

San Luis Obispo, Calif., Elementary School, 631. 

Santa Barbara, Calif., High School, proposed new, 14, 127-131. 

Santa Fe Elementary School, Oakland, Calif., 579, 580. 

Santa Monica, Calif., High School, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679. 

Schedule providing for limited introduction of supervised study 
in high schools, 1 50-1 51, 153. 

Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pa., library, 296; stairway at, 
313; main entrance lobby, 315; auditorium, 334; chemistry 
laboratory, 383 ; general science laboratory, 391 ; domestic- 
science room, 492; model dining-room, 501, 663, 664, 665. 

School architecture, motive of American, 18 ; formation of plan, 
18, 20-21 ; correlation of departments, 21 ; planning school of 
the future, 21-24, 573 ; the exterior composition, 24-28 ; ques- 
tion of standardization, 28-29 ; relation of planting and, 61, 63. 

School bank, the, 401. 

School-building codes, securing of uniformity in, 29. 

School-building inspectors, 31-33. 

School bujldings, proper planning for, 18, 20-21 ; of the future, 
21-24 ! exterior of, 24, 26-28 ; pros and cons of standardization, 
28-29 ; legislation suggested for governing construction, 29 ; 
materials for, 29, 31 ; inspection of construction work, 31-33 ; 
choice of architect and his service, 33-35 ; cost of, 70-76 ; types 
of construction for, 76-77 : classification of heating and venti- 
lation, 77 ; sanitary installations, 77 ; electrical installations, 
77-78, 550-568; classification of educational grades, 78; calcu- 
lating costs of heating and ventilating systems and electrical 
installation, 78-79; cost of equipment, 80-81; comparative 
costs and records, 81-82 ; static capacity as a basis for comput- 
ing costs, 82-83 ; for vocational schools, 157 ff . ; new, for trade 
or industrial education, 162-163 ; for agricultural schools, 195- 
197; matters of hygiene connected with, 204-217; adminis- 
trative offices in, 243-252 ; the kindergarten, 279-291 ; the 
library, 291-304; corridors, stairways, and entrances, 305-319; 
the assembly hall, 320-341; the music department, 342-349; 
physics and chemistry departments, 350-384; general science 
and biological laboratories, 385-396; the commercial depart- 
ment, 397-410; the drawing department, 411-423 ; the indus- 
trial arts department, 424 ; the home economics department, 
468-512; the cafeteria, 513-522; heating and ventilating of, 
523-540; plumbing system of, 541-549 ; electrical installation 
and illumination, 550-568; standards of planning of, 569-574. 

School clinics, 213, 216-217. 

School day, periods in, and length of, 148. 

School farms, 396. 

School grounds, size of, 6, 8 ; avoidance of waste in planning, 9 ; 
plans of, 12-13, 62, 64-68; landscape development of, 61-69. 

Schoolhouse planning, standards of, 569-574. 

School hygiene, 204-217. 

School library, chapter on, 291-304. See Library. 

Schools, part-time and evening, 158. 

School sites. See Sites of schools. 

Science, modern teaching of general, 385. 

Science building, estimated cost of, and of equipment, 80, 81. 

Science department, location of, 21; planning of, 22; require- 
ments for, in high elementary school, 71 ; in junior high and 
pre-vocational school, 72; in high school, 73-74; room for, in 
elementary school, 93 ; laboratories for, in junior high school, 
112; connected with vocational industrial shop, 172; plans 
for, in school building, 350-357 ; electric service for, 552, 554. 

Screens for lantern pictures, science department, 354. 

Secretaries, student, 403 ; principals', 403. 



Seesaws, in small children's space, elementary schools, 8; in 
junior high schools, 9. 

Self-testing activities in physical education, 222. 

Senior high school. Sec High school. 

Septic tanks for schools, 542. 

Service department, high school, requirements for, 73. 

Serving counter, school cafeteria, 520-521. 

Sewing, teaching of, 501-509. 

Sewing department, high school, 74. 

Shades for classroom windows, 277 ; use of Venetian blinds, 277- 
278. 

Sheet-metal shop, room fitted up for, and equipment, 170-171 ; 
arrangement of, 453, 456. 

Shops, location of, 21, 425-430; in industrial arts department of 
high school, 74, 424-425; estimated cost of building and of 
equipment, 80, 81 ; in industrial type of junior high school, in; 
size of, for senior high school, 139; equipment for, 161; floor 
space for, 164; floor plans of, 165-171, 198, 426, 428, 432, 438, 
440, 445, 447, 450, 454, 457, 459 ; description of typical shop, 
165-166; separate building for, 197 ; combination, 197-198. 

Shop window, a model, 402. 

Shorthand and typing department, high school, 73. 

Shower baths, 14; locating the, 21; a necessary part of school 
equipment, 93; in gymnasium, 226. 

Shrubs in school grounds, 64. 

Sinks, for unit kitchen arrangement, 483; in cafeteria kitchen, 

Sisson, Ralph C, chapter by, on the drawing department, 411-423. 

Sites of schools, selection of, 1 ; foresight necessary in choice of, 
1-2 ; general plan of, 2, 3 ; advantages of zone planning, 2, 4; 
characteristics of good, 4, 6 ; size of, 6, 8 ; of high schools, 9 ; 
relation of, to cost of school buildings, 75 ; size and location, for 
elementary school, 85; for junior high school, in ; of schools 
for trade or industrial education, 162 ; importance of, in con- 
sidering ceiling height, 260; and lighting of classrooms, 263. 

Skokie Elementary School, Winnetka, 111., 34, 35, 36. 

Slate, use of, for blackboards, 268-271. 

Slides, in small children's space, elementary school, 8 ; in junior 
high schools, 9; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 

Slides, lantern, for science department, 35 S- 

Smith, Ruth McNary, Equipping a Diet Kitchen by, cited, 490. 

Smith Agricultural School, Northampton, Mass., 196-197, 199. 

Smith-Hughes Act, for promoting vocational education, 159; 
impetus given vocational education by, 427. 

Snedden, David, quoted on "home-making" education, 469. 

Snyder, C. B. J., influence of work of, 18 ; cited on standardization, 
28; classroom plans by, 255, 259; quoted concerning stair re- 
quirements, 311 ; plans of stairs by, 314; quoted on fireproof 
stairways, 318. 

Soccer posts, at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 

Socialization, emphasized in kindergarten, 282. 

Sound, action of, and its control, in assembly halls, 324-327. 

Sound insulators for classroom floors, 272. 

South Side High School, Newark, N. J., 133-137 ; assembly hall, 
340. 

Special corrective period in physical education, 222. 

Special rooms in elementary school, 88. 

Special school buildings, types of, 160. 

Special-type high schools, comprehensive vs., 1 27-131. 

Springfield, Mass., industrial school, building of, 160. 

Stables, location of schooh relative to, 6. 

Stacks, library, 295-296. 

Staff of senior high school, relation of, to accommodations, 138-139. 

Stage of assembly hall, 320, 323-324. 

Stairs and stairways in elementary school, 85, 88; in schools in 
general, 310-318. 

Standardization, in school planning, 28-29 ; of classrooms, 88. 

Standards of schoolhouse planning, 569-574. 

Standpipes in school buildings, 548-549. 



GENERAL INDEX 



723 



States, promotion of vocational education by, 159; laws of, con- 
cerning physical education, 220-221. 

Static capacity, computation of school-building costs by, 82-83. 

Steam and gas engines, courses in, 364 ; laboratory for, 367-368. 

Steam systems of heating, 531. 

Steel work in school construction, 32. 

Stenotypy classes, 407. 

Stereopticon equipment in elementary schools, 94. 

Sterling, Colo., Logan County Industrial Arts High School at, 107, 
198. 

Storage spaces under stairs, 318. 

Store, the school, 401-402. 

Storeroom, for physics lecture-room apparatus, 361 ; the central, 
for industrial arts department, 465; of cafeteria, 519-520. 

Storerooms, connected with school playgrounds, 14; connected 
with physics laboratory, 363 ; for applied physics laboratories, 
370; for biological laboratory, 393; for drawing department, 
420-421. 

Stoves, in domestic-science department, 481 ; use of, for heating, 
527-528. 

Street-car lines, precautions in locating schools near, 6, 9. 

Street conditions, attention to, in planning for school sites, 
2, 6, 9. 

Strength of materi? 1 ^, courses in, 364; laboratory for, 365. 

Stuart, Reginald R., chapter by, on the commercial department, 
397-410. 

Study, provisions for, in high schools, 140 ; directed and undirected, 
140, 142 ; schedule providing for limited introduction of super- 
vised, in high schools, 1 50-1 51, 153. 

Study halls, size of, in high schools, 147 ; articulation of, with 
library, 147. 

Study-sittings, number of, in high schools, 142, 147. 

Supervised play period in physical education, 221. 

Supervised study in high schools, 1 50-151, 153. 

Supplies, kept in school store, 401-402 ; regulations governing, for 
school shops, 465. 

Surfacing of school playgrounds, 10-n. 

Surveys of proposed school sites, 6. 

Swedish system of physical education, 219. 

Swimming-pools, for junior high schools, 8 ; essential in school 
equipment, 20, 93; locating, 21; in high schools, 75; plans 
and view of, 224, 231, 232 ; specifications and requirements for, 
235-236. 

Swings, in small children's space, elementary schools, 8 ; in junior 
high schools, 9. 

Switchboards, for lecture rooms, 357, 358; laboratory, 362, 365, 
37°, 373-375. 379', for electric service, 554-555- 

Tables, for chemistry laboratory, 375, 381 ; in cookng unit, home 

economics department, 477, 479, 481. 
Tabulation of accommodations needed in high schools, 148-150. 
Tacking strips, suggestions and devices for, 271. 
Taunton, Mass., Taunton High School, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 

671, 672. 
Teacher's closet in wardrobe, 267-268. 
Teachers College, Columbia University, laundry laboratory at, 497, 

504- 
Teachers' dining-rooms, 499, 500. 
Teachers' lunch room in large elementary school, 248. 
Teachers' rooms, in elementary schools, 70, 71, 245, 246-247; in 

junior high and pre-vocational schools, 71, 113 ; in high schools, 

73, 249. 
Technical drawing room, 420. 
Technical education for adults, 384. 
Teeth, care of school children's, 216, 217. 
Telephone, training business students in use of, 401. 
Telephone system in schools, 556-557. 
Temperature, of rooms, 205; of open-air classrooms, 211. 
Temperature control in school buildings, 540. 



Tenney, Walter A., chapter by, on the industrial arts department, 

424-467. 
Tennis courts, for elementary schools, 8, 237 ; for junior high 

schools, 8; at Mosswood Park, Oakland, Calif., 240. 
Tests, psychological, in commercial department of high school, 401. 
Textile apparatus, clothing unit of home economics department, 

502, 504. 
Texture, harmony of, in plant composition, 63. 
Theater-auditorium, Oakland, Calif., 329, 330. 
Three-block system, introduction of, 126-127; variations in, 127. 
Toilet rooms, near playgrounds, n, 14; in school buildings, 210; 

in gymnasium, 226; ventilation of, 540; plumbing of, 543; 

plumbing fixtures for, 549. 
Toledo, Ohio, Lincoln School, kindergarten, 285, 590, 591, 592, 

593 ; Mott School, 613, 614, 615, 616. 
Tools, for manual-training and technical high schools, 161 ; for 

equipment of shops, 166-171. 
Trade drawing room, 419-420. 
Trade education, growing out of domestic arts, 469. See Home 

economics. 
Trade schools, 158; planning of buildings for, 159; photographs 

of, 172, 176; for girls, 190-195 ; home-making departments of, 

200. See also IndustriaTschools and Vocational schools. 
Trade-sewing equipment, 507, 509. 
Trade shops of high school, location of, 9. 
Trade unit plan of construction for industrial schools, 164-165. 
Transoms in classrooms, 274. 
Treads of stairs, 313, 315. 
Trees in school grounds, 64. 
Trenton, N. J., Junior High School, 11 2-1 18, 2>i2> \ gymnasium of, 

229 ; printing shop of, 452 ; cooking room of, 498. 
Trim for classroom interiors, 272. 
Tuition at vocational schools, 175, 181. 
Types of construction for school buildings, 76-77. 
Typewriter desks, 405. 

Typewriters, care and repair of, 406 ; selection of makes, 407, 409. 
Typing, importance of, 405 ; classes in, rooms for, and desks, 405. 

Unification, comprehensive high school as an instrument for, 129. 

Union high schools, 132. 

Unit basis, construction of factory type of school building on, 165. 

Unit kitchens, home economics department, 473, 475, 477. 

Unit plan of buildings at Wentworth Institute, 184-186. 

Unit trade courses, equipment of typical shops for, 164-172. 

Unit trade schools, 160. 

University of California, Berkeley, Calif. (Dental Clinic), 216; 

(bookstack), 297. 
Utensils, for equipment of unit kitchen, home economics depart- 

nent, 484-487. 

Vacuum piping for science department, 353. 

Varnish, floor, for classrooms, 276. 

Vegetable-peeling machine, school cafeteria, 519. 

Vegetable preparation table, cafeteria kitchen, 517-518. 

Venetian blinds, use of, for window shades, 277-278. 

Ventilating systems, types of, 77 ; calculating cost of, 78-79. 

Ventilation, means of, in elementary schools, 94 ; of home eco- 
nomics departments, 203 ; of school buildings in general, 204- 
205; summary of requirements for, 206; of toilet rooms, 210, 
540 ; of gymnasium, 229, 236 ; location of air registers, 276-277 ; 
of library rooms, 296 ; of lecture room, science department, 353 ; 
of laundry room, home economics department, 496-497 ; criti- 
cism and discussion of mechanical, 523-524; standard of 
purity, 524; ozonating, 524; air filters, 524-525; humidity, 
525-526; air volume, 526; cost, 526; by windows, 526-527; 
open-air rooms, 527 ; powers of, possessed by jacketed stoves, 
528; where furnaces are used, 528-531 ; plant for heating and, 
535-540. 

Vermont high school system, 127 ; for rural areas, 133. 



724 



GENERAL INDEX 



Vestibules of entrance to school buildings, 318. 

Vibration, guarding against, in locating science group rooms, 351. 

Vice-principal's suite, high school, cost of equipment, 81. 

Vines on playground fences, 11. 

Visual instruction, equipment for, in elementary schools, 94. 

Vocational education, for special type of pupils, 4 ; comprehensive 
high school best for effectiveness of, 128-129; aims of general 
education contrasted with those of, 157-158; recent develop- 
ment of, 158; agencies which are promoting, 159; trend of 
high school education toward, 412. 

Vocational music, equipment for instruction in, 346, 348. 

Vocational schools, organization of, 157-158; function of, 158- 
159 ; types of and buildings for, 158, 160— 161 ; description of 
typical, 173-190; floor plans of, 173-175, 177, 179-181,183- 
187, 189-193, 196-199, 201-202; photographs of, 182, 184, 188; 
equipment of, 195-198; for teaching home economics, 199-203. 

Volley ball courts, for elementary schools, 8; for junior high 
schools, 8; at Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 14, 238. 

Walls of classrooms, treatment of, 208; material for, 272-273 ; of 

corridors, 307-308. 
Ward, Gilbert 0., writings on school library by, 291. 
Wardrobes, location of, relative to classrooms, 267-268. 
Warren, Irene, writings on school library by, 291. 
Wasco, Calif., Union High School, arrangement of buildings and 

grounds of, 242. 
Washing machines, school laundry unit, 497. 
Washington, D. C, Central High School, 50-60; main corridor, 

306. 
Washington School, Oakland, Calif., 578. 
Wash rooms, school shops, 427. 
Waste, in duplication of departments in schools, 2,4; avoiding, in 

planning of school grounds, 9. 
Water activities in physical education, 223. 
Water distribution in schools, 545, 547. 
Water for swimming-pools, requirements for, 235-236. 
Water supply for toilet rooms, 545. 

Watson, F. R., work on architectural acoustics by, cited, 324. 
Weaver, Frank, forge designed by, 442, 444. 



Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass., buildings of, 160, 184-187. 

Westmoreland School grounds, Imperial Valley, Calif., 68. 

Westwood Public School, Cincinnati, Ohio, 627, 628, 629, 630. 

Wheelwright, Edmund M., architect, influence of work of, 18. 

White, Eva W., Household Arts by, cited, 488. 

Wider use of school grounds, n. 

William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, 
Minn., buildings of, 160, 180; history and location of, 178- 
180; equipment and courses at, 180-181. 

Williamson, Isaiah U., school founded by, 175-176. 

Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, buildings of, 160, ■ 
176; history and location of, 175-176; equipment and courses 
at, 176-177; requirements for admission, indenturing of stu- 
dents, etc., 177. 

Windows, handling of, 264, 266 ; in Clawson School, Oakland, 
Calif., 270; in Emerson School, Oakland, Calif., 273; for 
classroom, 277; shades for, '277; specifications and recom- 
mendations in connection with lighting, 561-563. 

Window stools, height of, 266-267. 

Window ventilation for schools, 526-527. 

Winnetka, 111., Skokie Elementary School, 34, 35, 36. 

Winslow, Charles H., survey by, 189. 

Winslow, E. A., cited on ventilation, 205. 

Winter activities in physical education, 223. 

Wood finishing, workshop for teaching, 169-170. 

Woods, Glen H., chapter by, on the music department, 342-349. 

Woodworking shops, description of typical, 167-168. 

Worcester, Mass., Boys' Trade School, 160, 172, 173 ; account of, 
173-174; equipment and courses, 174. 

Worcester, Mass., Girls' Trade School, 193-194; home-making 
department of, 200. 

Workers, two types of schools for, 158. 

Working pupils, schedule for, in high schools, 151, 153. 

Workshop, science department, 351-352. See Shops. 

Wright, J. D., chapter by, on buildings and equipment for voca- 
tional schools, 157-203. 

Zone planning for school grounds, benefits of, 2, 4. 

Zoology, courses in, and laboratory accommodations for, 390-391. 



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